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An  English  Grammar 


2  7  1" 


An 
English    Grammar 


By 


John  B.  Wisely 

Head  of  the  Department  of  Grammar  and  Ca 
position  in  the  Indiana  State  Normal 
School.  Terre  Haute 


^  <^3S 


Atkinson,  Mentzer  h  Grover 

Publishers 

NEW  YORK  CHICAGO  BOSTON  DALLAS 


a^oc^-^s 


Copyright ,  iQob 
By  John  B.  Wisely 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall.  London 


PE 

\  \  n 

The    Preface 

MUCH  progress  has  been  made  in  the  last  few  years 
in  the  teaching  of  English.  Old  ideas  and  meth- 
ods have  been  thoroughly  sifted ;  text  after  text 
has  appeared ;  and  the  results  of  all  this  agitation  are  seen 
in  better  trained  teachers,  more  natural  and  efficient  methods 
of  instruction,  and  a  saner  view  of  the  entire  subject.  One 
by  one  V\fe  have  been  trying  out  the  facts  in  English,  as 
well  as  in  other  lines,  and  we  are  every  day  coming  more 
surely  to  the  conclusion  that  we  must  get  back  to  funda- 
mentals. We  have  been  growing  gradually  into  the  con- 
viction, that  the  pupils  in  the  grades  below  the  high  school 
should  have  about  two  years  of  good  training  in  English 
Grammar,  that  will  ground  them  in  the  principles  underly- 
ing the  English  sentence.  Nothing  less  will  prepare  them 
for  the  subject  of  composition  and  nothing  less  will  enable 
them  to  use  English  intelligently  and  effectively. 

In  writing  this  book,  with  this  thought  in  mind,  the 
author  has  had  presented  to  him  two  problems : 

I.  The  course  in  grammar  for  the  grades  must  not  con- 
sist in  food  for  babes.  The  book  has  been  written  with  the 
idea  in  mind,  that  below  the  sixth  or  seventh  year,  no  at- 
tempt is  to  be  made  to  teach  technical  or  scientific  grammar. 
All  grammar,  as  such,  is  to  be  eliminated  from  this  period ; 
and  during  the  last  two  or  three  years  of  the  course,  the 
pupils  are  to  receive  a  systematic  training  in  the  principles 
underlying  the  construction  of  the  English  sentence.  This 
book,  therefore,  tries  to  present  in  a  scientific  way,  those 
topics  which  are  vital  in  the  organization  of  the  subject  of 
grammar  as  set  forth  in  the  Introduction. 

[V] 


vi  An  English  Grammar 

Almost  all  phases  of  historical  graiTimar  have  been 
omitted  because  that  view  is  not  vital  in  the  organization  of 
the  subject,  nor  is  it  necessary  to  a  working  knowledge  of 
the  science  of  the  English  sentence.  It  is  thought  that  the 
pupil,  at  this  age,  has  not  a  sufficient  basis  for  such  a  discus- 
sion of  the  facts  of  grammar.  The  book,  then,  is  an  attempt 
to  present  a  logical  course  in  scientific,  technical,  descriptive, 
or  formal  grammar  suited  to  the  needs  and  capacities  of 
pupils  in  the  upper  grammar  grades. 

2.  The  author's  somewhat  extended  experience  in  teach- 
ing the  subject  in  public  and  Normal  schools,  and  his  super- 
vision of  others  in  the  work,  has  shown  him  how  very  easy 
it  is  to  make  the  study  of  grammar  a  bugbear,  a  deadening, 
verbal  memory  grind  to  children.  This  is  not  necessary. 
The  subject  of  grammar  may  be  made  as  interesting  to  the 
pupil  as  the  subject  of  botany,  and  it  may  be  studied  in 
much  the  same  way. 

We  used  to  study  botany,  physics,  chemistry,  from  the 
text-book  as  we  have  been  studying  grammar.  Bacon, 
Agassiz,  and  others  showed  us  the  error  of  our  way.  To-day, 
in  the  study  of  botany,  we  study  plants,  using  the  text  as  an 
aid.  In  the  teaching  of  physics  and  chemistry,  the  labora- 
tory is  considered  an  essential.  If  the  teacher  of  science  to- 
day had  to  give  up  his  text-book  or  his  laboratory,  he  would, 
without  hesitation,  discard  the  text. 

It  is  thought  that  this  same  spirit  of  investigation,  this 
same  personal  examination  of  the  facts  of  the  subject  on 
the  part  of  every  pupil,  ought  to  be  introduced  into  the 
study  of  grammar;  and  that  the  great  variety  of  sentences 
ought  to  stand  before  the  student  of  grammar,  for  his 
scrutiny  and  examination,  just  as  the  great  variety  of  plants 
is  made  to  appear  to  him  by  the  teacher  of  botany. 

The  purpose  of  the  author  in  this  book  has  been  to  pre- 
sent suitable  sentences  and  to  ask  such  questions  upon  them 
as  will  lead  the  pupil  to  construct  the  science  of  grammar 


The  Preface  vii 

for  himself.  To  this  end  only  such  definitions,  statements 
of  facts,  and  explanations,  as  have  been  thought  necessary 
to  help  the  child  to  think  his  way  through  the  subject,  have 
been  inserted. 

There  is  no  need  of  committing  to  memory  any  law  or 
principle  of  language  from  a  text-book.  All  the  facts 
of  grammar  are  embodied  in  the  sentence,  and  the 
pupil  may  study  them  at  first  hand,  just  as  he  studies 
the  flower  in  botany  or  the  rock  in  geology.  Should 
he  forget  the  rule,  he  has  only  to  examine  a  few  sen- 
tences and  restate  it  for  himself.  Nor  is  the  teacher 
asked  to  accept  a  single  statement  in  this  book.  Grammar 
is  not  a  matter  of  authority ;  it  is  a  thought  subject,  and  if 
the  teacher's  thought  on  the  materials  here  presented  should 
lead  her  to  a  different  conclusion  from  that  stated  in  a 
definition,  she  should  not  hesitate  to  change  the  definition. 

There  is  no  need  to  tell  the  pupil  that  the  flower  has  so 
many  petals  and  so  many  sepals,  or  to  send  him  to  a  book 
to  read  it,  says  the  botanist ;  he  can  discover  these  facts 
for  himself.  Can  he  not  also  discover  the  uses  of  the  sub- 
stantive clause?  If  he  is  able  to  see  that  the  fish  has  so 
many  spines  in  the  dorsal  fin,  why  can  he  not  see  that  the 
noun  has  gender,  person,  number,  and  case?  There  is  a 
close  resemblance  between  this  method  of  procedure  in  the 
language  studies  and  that  followed  in  the  study  of  the 
natural  sciences.  True,  no  special  laboratory,  fitted  up  with 
tables,  cases  of  instruments,  or  bottles  of  reagents,  is 
necessary.  The  real  unit  of  the  subject,  the  sentence,  is  the 
material  upon  which  we  work ;  the  instruments  are  the 
minds  of  the  pupils,  constantly  at  hand,  and  never  in  the 
way. 

The  work  as  presented  in  this  text,  then,  is  based  upon 
the  following  thoughts : 


viii  An  English  Grammar 

1.  That  the  sentence,  as  determined  by  the  thought 
which  it  expresses,  is  the  unit  and  subject  of  study  in 
grammar. 

2.  That  there  should  be  a  twofold  purpose  in  the  mind 
of  the  teacher  who  teaches  it;  namely,  to  make  the  pupils 
familiar  with  the  principles  which  underlie  correct  sentence 
construction,  and  to  give  them  skill  in  the  use  of  the  sen- 
tence as  an  instrument  in  expressing  thpir  thought. 

3.  That  the  method  which  should  be  pursued  in  studying 
the  subject  should  be  inductive,  and  might  appropriately  be 
called  the  laboratory  method. 

Acknowledgment  is  due  Miss  Harriet  E.  Peet  of  the 
Forestville  School,  Chicago,  for  assistance  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  work  in  Composition.  For  valuable  criticisms 
on  the  manuscript  and  proof  thanks  are  due  Mr.  T.  E. 
Spencer  of  the  Irving  School,  St.  Louis,  Missouri ;  Mr. 
A.  Jones,  Marion  Normal  School,  Marion,  Indiana ;  Miss 
Bertha  L.  Green,  Lincoln,  Nebraska;  Mr.  F.  W.  Nichols, 
Evanston,  Illinois ;  Mr.  F.  E.  Sanford,  Lagrange,  Illinois. 

J.  B.  W. 
Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  February  2,  1906. 


The  Table  of  Contents 

The  Preface v 

The  Introduction xi 

I.  THE  FIRST  SECTION  : 

Chapter  I.     The  Subject  as  a  Whole i 

Chapter  II.     The  Sentence  as  a  Whole 9 

II.  THE  SECOND  SECTION: 

Chapter  III.     Classes  of  Sentences 26 

Chapter  IV.     Classes  of  Sentences 35 

III.  THE  THIRD  SECTION  : 

Chapter  V.     Thought  Material  or  Ideas 43 

Chapter  VI.     Words 51 

Chapter  VII.     The  Phrase 69 

Chapter  VIII.     Modifiers  .  .  . 76 

Chapter  IX.     The   Organic    Parts   of   the   Sen- 
tence    91 

Chapter  X.     The  Simple  Sentence 95 

Chapter  XI.    The  Compound  Sentence 112 

Chapter  XII.     The  Complex  Sentence 141 

IV.  THE  FOURTH  SECTION: 

Chapter  XIII.     Parts  of  Speech 190 

Chapter  XIV.     The  Noun  191 

Chapter  XV.     The  Pronoun 219 

Chapter  XVI.     The  Adjective 241 

Chapter  XVI J.     \erbs 263 

Chapter  XVIII.    The  Adverb 341 


The  Table  of  Contents  r^ 

Chapter  XIX.     The  Infinitive   345 

Chapter  XX.     The  Participle 356 

Chapter  XXI.     The  Preposition   366 

Chapter  XXII.     The  Conjunction 371 

The  Index 383 


Introductory 

For  Teachers  Only 

THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SUBJECT 

1.  Both  a  Science  and  an  Art.  English  grammar  is 
that  language  study  which  has  for  its  subject-matter  the 
sentence.  It  is  both  a  science  and  an  art.  As  a  science,  it 
deals  with  the  fundamentals  of  sentence  structure.  It  makes 
known  to  the  student  the  laws  and  principles  which  under- 
lie sentence  construction.  As  an  art,  it  aims  to  enable  the 
student  to  acquire  a  skillful  use  of  the  sentence  as  an  instru- 
ment in  expressing  his  thought. 

These  two  phases  of  the  subject  are  not  inseparable. 
One  may  understand  the  science  of  grammar  and  not  be 
able  to  use  good  English  in  conversation,  and  one  may  be 
very  skillful  in  the  use  of  language  and  at  the  same  time 
know  little  or  nothing  about  the  laws  and  principles  which 
govern  correct  sentence  construction.  If  a  person  has  been 
brought  up  in  a  family  where  he  has  always  heard  good 
English,  if  his  playmates  and  those  with  whom  he  has  asso- 
ciated have  always  used  good  English,  then  his  English  will 
certainly  be  pure,  though  he  may  know  nothing  of  the  rules 
of  grammar.  On  the  other  hand,  we  have  all  known  persons 
who  could  repeat  rule  after  rule  of  grammar  and  vet  could 
not  speak  correctly. 

2.  Mastery  of  the  Art.  As  a  mastery  of  the  art  side 
of  grammar  is  an  accomplishment  which  comes  only  through 
long  and  careful  practice,  it  is  essential  that  the  teacher  de- 
vote much  time  to  this  side  of  the  child's  education  in  Eng- 


xii  hiiroduclory 

lisli.  His  language  will  need  the  careful  supervision  of  his 
teacher  in  all  his  work,  and  the  pupil,  himself,  should  be  made 
to  feel  that  he  must  keep  a  constant  watch  over  his  language 
in  order  to  become  proficient  in  its  use.  Eternal  vigilance 
on  the  part  of  both  teacher  and  pupil,  is  the  price  of  pure 
English.  The  science  of  grammar  will  help,  to  some  extent, 
to  give  the  pupil  the  art;  it  will  help  him  to  judge  when  his 
sentences  are  correct,  and  to  discover  his  own  mistakes,  but 
the  use  of  good  English  must  be  acquired  largely  by  prac- 
tice. 

3.  Value  of  Purpose.  In  teaching  any  subject,  the 
teacher  should  constantly  bear  in  mind  the  end  to  be  at- 
tained. The  teacher  who  sees  clearly  the  end  from  the  be- 
ginning will  be  able,  for  the  most  part,  to  select  such  means 
and  devices  as  will  accomplish  this  end.  She  will  waste  no 
time  on  side  issues  or  irrelevant  matter,  because  the  pur- 
pose which  she  sees  in  the  work  draws  her  constantly  toward 
that  end  and  excludes  everything  which  does  not  contribute 
to  it. 

4.  Contribution  to  Character.  If  w^e  say  that  the  end 
of  education  is  moral  character,  then  the  chief  value  of  the 
study  of  grammar  lies  in  that  element  which  it  contributes 
to  moral  character.  Does  grammar  really  do  this?  I  think 
so. 

5.  It  Deals  With  Mind.  In  the  study  of  grammar, 
the  pupil's  attention  is  directed  inward  for  the  first  time. 
It  is  the  only  subject  in  the  common  school  course  which  re- 
quires the  pupil  to  consider  his  mental  acts  as  such.  Here 
he  stops  to  consider  for  the  first  time  the  nature  of  that 
for  which  the  word,  the  phrase,  the  clause,  the  sentence 
stand.  He  deals  primarily  with  the  forms  of  pure  thought, 
although  in  a  very  elementary  way. 

This  means  that  he  gets  some  knowledge  of  the  human 
mind ;  he  sees,  to  some  extent,  the  delicate  working,  the 
marvelous  powers  of  the  human  soul.    Here  he  finds  an  op- 


Introductory  xiii 

porttinity  for  making  distinctions  and  doing  similar  thinking 
to  that  which  mnst  be  done  in  the  study  of  psychology  and 
logic.  He  does  closer  and  stronger  thinking  than  that  re- 
quired in  arithmetic  or  physiology,  because  the  subject-mat- 
ter upon  which  he  is  working  is  more  subtile. 

This  work  gives  him  an  element  of  moral  character  which 
he  can  not  get  from  the  study  of  any  other  subject;  namely, 
acute  intellectual  judgment,  without  which  there  could  be 
no  moral  judgment  and  hence  no  moral  character.  For  if 
the  element  of  moral  judgment  be  left  out  of  character,  if 
the  individual  lie  unable  to  make  fine  distinctions  in  ques- 
tions of  right  and  wrong,  strong  moral  character  is  impos- 
sible. 

6.  More  Immediate  Purpose  of  the  Subject.  But 
while  this  is  the  great  value  of  the  study  of  grammar,  it  is 
not  the  immediate  end  which  the  teacher  keeps  before  her 
day  by  day.  The  result  stated  above  is  obtained  only  by 
keeping  in  mind  the  fact,  that  the  sentence  is  the  unit  or  sub- 
ject-matter of  grammar,  and  that  all  work  in  the  subject  has 
for  its  object : 

(i).  To  give  pupils  a  knowledge  of  its  structure — the 
laws  and  principles  which  underlie  its  correct  construction, 
or  the  science  of  the  English  sentence. 

(2).  To  give  the. pupils  a  mastery  of  the  sentence  as  an 
instrument  in  expressing  thought  that  will  enable  them  to 
use  it  correctly — the  art  of  the  English  sentence. 

7,  Characteristics  of  the  Subject.  In  order  to  ac- 
com.plish  these  results,  the  teacher  should  bear  in  mind : 

(i).  That  grammar  is  a  subject  in  itself,  apart  from  all 
text-books  on  the  subject,  and  if  all  the  texts  were  destroyed, 
we  should  still  have  the  subject  of  grammar.  It  has  a  cen- 
tral or  organizing  idea  which  binds  together  the  facts  of  the 
subject  and  indicates  their  relations  to  all  other  facts  of 
knowledge. 


xiv  Introductory 

(2).  That  it  is  a  logical  or  thought  subject.  It  is  not 
arbitrary  and  mechanical,  but  reasonable. 

(^).  That  it  is  analytic  and  inductive  and  not  synthetic 
and  deductive,  and  should  be  taught  according  to  the  labora- 
tory method,  as  explained  in  the  preface.  The  purpose  of 
the  discussion  that  follows  is  to  make  these  three  proposi- 
tions clear  to  the  teacher  and  thus  enable  her  to  get  above 
the  common  plane  of  ordinary  text-book  grammar  work. 

GRAMMAR  A  SUBJItCT  IN    ITSELF. 

8.  Related  to  Other  Subjects.  There  is  a  body  of 
facts  which  we  call  grammar.  Can  these  facts  be  known 
scientifically,  just  as  one  would  learn  the  facts  of  botany,  or 
nmst  the  student  be  required  to  commit  them  to  memory 
from  a  text?  This  group  of  facts  is  related  tO'  other  groups 
of  facts.  Grammar  is  related  to  the  word  studies  of  the  lan- 
guage group.  It  is  also  a  near  relative  of  reading,  composi- 
tion and  rhetoric,  and  literature — those  language  studies 
which  have  discourse  for  their  subject-matter.  Grammar  is 
the  handmaid  of  logic.  All  its  forms  are  determined  by  and 
adapted  to  the  thought  they  express.  The  relations  which 
are  found  in  the  subject  are  logical  relations  and  the  true 
study  of  these  facts  is  the  study  of  the  logic  of  the  English 
sentence.  Dr.  C.  C.  Everett,  of  Harvard  University,  in  his 
"Science  of  Thought,''  says:  "Certainly,  while  logic  de- 
rives such  help  from  grammar,  the  reverse  should  be  done, 
and  our  grammars  placed  upon  a  direct  logical  footing." 

9.  Constructive  Study  of  Grammar.  When  the  stu- 
dent studies  grammar  in  the  light  of  the  relations  set  forth 
above,  when  he  sees  it  as  based  upon  and  growing  out  of 
logic,  as  a  practical  illustration  of  psychology,  as  conditioned 
by  the  word  studies,  and  reading,  and  as  preparing  for  and 
aiding  in  a  mastery  of  the  other  discourse  studies,  he  is 
studying  the  subject  "  constructively."  as  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris 
says. 


Introdnctory  xv 

Heretofore  he  has  learned  a  great  many  of  the  facts  of 
orthography,  orthoepy,  grammar,  reading,  composition, 
rhetoric,  and  Hterature,  but  these  are  somewhat  fused  to- 
gether in  his  mind  and  mixed,  to  some  extent,  with  the 
facts  of  history,  geography,  and  all  other  subjects  which  he 
has  studied.  Now  he  sees  the  language  group  clearly  set  off 
from  all  other  studies,  he  sees  the  place  of  each  study  in 
this  group,  and  he  sees  all  of  them  in  the  light  of  the  studies 
upon  which  they  are  based. 

10.  Facts  of  Grammar  Related.  But  while  the  stu- 
dent is  corning  into  a  complete  comprehension  of  the  rela- 
tions stated  above,  he  learns  that  the  facts  of  grammar  have 
certain  relations  to  one  another  and  to  the  subject  as  a 
whole. 

In  the  consideration  of  such  a  common  object  as  the 
table,  he  has  noticed  that  it  is  made  up  of  parts,  each  one 
holding  a  certain  relation  to  every  other  one  and  all  together 
forming  tlie  whole.  Without  any  one  of  these  parts  the 
whole  would  not  be  complete.  In  this  case,  he  sees  a  com- 
mon idea,  the  idea  of  design  or  purpose,  embodied  in  every 
part  of  the  table  and  binding  all  the  parts  together  into  the 
whole.  The  table  is  to  write  upon  and  at  the  same  time  is 
to  be  ornamental,  and  every  part  and  attribute  of  it,  legs, 
sides,  top,  color,  etc.,  embodies  the  central  idea  of  the  table. 
Why  was  the  table  not  painted  red?  Why  are  the  legs  all 
the  same  length  ?  Why  is  this  bit  of  carving  on  the  side  ? 
Why  is  it  made  of  hard  wood  ?  To  answer  any  of  these 
questions  is  to  refer  it  to  the  central  idea  in  the  table. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  student  might  take  another 
view  of  the  table.  He  might  see  it  as  a  number  of  isolated 
parts,  existing  in  space — a  mere  heap  of  material.  What  is 
the  difference  between  this  view  and  the  first  one?  The 
parts  are  all  in  the  second  view.  The  legs,  top.  sides,  etc., 
every  bit  of  carving,  all  the  attributes  of  the  parts,  color, 
form,  etc.,  all  materials  arc  present.     But  the  view  of  the 


xvi  Introductory 

tabic  is  not  the  same  as  the  first,  because  these  parts  are  not 
seen  in  their  relations.  They  are  not  bound  into  a  whole  by 
a  unifying-  idea. 

11.  Two  Views  of  Any  Subject.  It  will  be  seen  from 
the  foregoing  discussion  that  there  were  two  phases  or  sides 
in  this  first  view  of  the  table ;  namely,  the  part  phase  or 
fact  phase ;  and  the  relation  phase  or  unifying  idea. 

It  is  held  that  the  relations  existing  among  the  facts  of 
grammar  are  similar  to  the  relations  existing  among  the 
parts  of  the  table  with  one  exception.  The  relations  exist- 
ing among  the  parts  of  the  table  are  mechanical  relations, 
and  the  whole  is  a  mechanical  whole,  while  the  relations  ex- 
isting among  the  facts  of  grammar  are  vital,  and  the  subject 
may  be  shown  to  be  a  vital  unity. 

12.  Two  Points  of  View.  Grammar,  then,  may  be 
studied  from  these  two  points  of  view : 

(i).  The  student  may  consider  the  fact  side,  sentences 
in  their  great  variety  of  form  and  many  shades  of  meaning, 
together  with  the  words  which  compose  these  sentences  in 
their  various  uses  in  the  sentences.  These  form  the  subject- 
matter  of  grammar,  upon  which  the  mind  of  the  student  is 
to  be  exercised. 

(2).  The  student  may  consider  the  relation  phase  of  the 
subject.  This  is  the  central  idea,  which  is  found  in  some 
measure  embodied  in  all  the  facts  of  the  subject,  and  which 
binds  them  all  together. 

The  two  points  just  stated  are  not  two  different  subjects. 
They  are  the  same  thing  considered  from  two  points  of  view ; 
it  takes  both  to  form  the  science  of  grammar  ;  and  any  knowl- 
edge which  leaves  out  either  phase  of  the  subject  could  not 
be  said  to  be  a  scientific  knowledge  of  grammar. 

13.  To  Know  a  Subject  Scientifically.  Science,  it  has 
often  been  said,  is  organized  knowledge.  To  know  a  thing 
scientifically  is  to  know  it  in  its  relations.  To  know  any 
subject  scientifically,  is  to  know  the  relations  which  exist 


Introductory 


xvii 


among-  the  facts  of  that  subject ;  to  see  the  relation  of  each 
fact  to  other  facts  and  to  the  whole  by  means  of  the  funda- 
mental idea  in  tlie  subject;  and  to  see  the  relation  of  the 
subject  as  a  whole  to  other  subjects  of  study. 

This  view  of  the  subject  cannot  be  gained  by  committing 
rules  and  definitions  from  a  text-book  on  grammar,  however 
good  the  rules  and  definitions  may  be.  The  student's  mind 
must  come  into  contact  with  the  real  unit  of  the  subject,  if 
he  is  to  see  relations.  In  short,  the  subject  of  grammar  must 
be  viewed  as  stated  above  in  "'  (i)  "  and  "  (2)  " :  the  facts 
and  the  central  or  relating  idea.  When  one  sees  the  sub- 
ject in  this  v.'ay,  one  may  be  said  to  have  an  organized  knowl- 
edge of  grammar. 

The  sentence  cannot  say  to  the  subject,  "  I  have  no  need 
of  you  " ;  nor  the  adverb  to  the  verb,  "  I  have  no  need  of 
you  '" ;  nor  can  grammar  say  to  the  most  insignificant  fact  in 
it,  "  I  have  no  need  of  you."  For  this  body  of  facts  which 
belong  to  grammar,  being  many,  are  at  the  same  time  one, 
by  reason  of  a  common  idea  which  is  found  in  all  of  them, 
and  every  one  members  one  of  another. 

14.  The  Subject-Matter.  It  has  been  said  that  sen- 
tences in  their  manifold  variety  of  form  and  many  shades 
of  meaning,  together  with  the  multitude  of  facts  concerning 
them,  which  the  student  must  know  in  order  to  understand 
how  thoughts  are  expressed  in  sentences,  form  the  subject- 
matter  of  grammar.  The  student  is  to  combine  this  vast  ar- 
ray of  facts  into  an  organized  whole  by  means  of  what  has 
been  called  the  "  relation  phase,"  or  "  unifying  idea."  This 
unifying  idea  or  central  principle  of  the  subject  of  grammar 
must  be  a  general  truth,  because  every  fact  in  the  subject 
must  partake  of  its  nature.  It  must  be  a  primary  truth,  be- 
cause every  fact  in  the  subject  is  to  be  built  into  it.  It  must 
be  a  determining  idea  or  relating  truth,  because,  by  means 
of  it,  all  the  facts  of  grammar  are  to  be  logically  arranged 
or  organized. 


xviii  Introductory 

15.  The  Central  Idea.  J'hc  only  use  of  a  sentence 
is  to  express  a  thought.  How  does  the  sentence  express 
thought?  The  mowing  machine  expresses  thought.  By  ob- 
serving its  parts  and  how  they  all  cooperate  to  do  the  work 
of  the  machine,  one  becomes  aware  of  the  fact  that  all  this 
existed  in  the  mind  of  the  inventor  before  it  was  put  into 
completed  form.  The  mower  is  simply  the  expression  of  the 
thought  of  the  designer. 

16.  The  Nature  of  a  Judgment.  The  sentence  does 
not  express  thought  in  the  v/ay  indicated  above.  A  judgment 
or  thought  is  a  mental  act  in  which  the  mind  asserts  a  re- 
lation between  ideas.  There  are  three  elements  in  every  such 
judgment : 

(i).  The  idea  about  which  the  mind  asserts  another 
idea,  which  may  be  called  the  thought  subject. 

(2).  The  idea  which  the  mind  thinks  with  the  first  idea 
and  which  it  affirms  or  denies  of  it.  This  may  be  called  the 
thought  predicate. 

f^).  The  relation  which  the  mind  asserts  between  these 
ideas,  which  is  always  one  of  agreement  or  disagreement  and 
which  may  be  termed  the  thought  relation. 

I  have  in  mind  the  idea,  the  cloud,  and  the  idea,  fleecy, 
but  these  do  not  form  a  judgment.  I  must  see  a  relation  be- 
tween the  two.  My  mind  must  combine  the  two  ideas  into 
a  unity  in  which  I  see  the  attribute,  fleecy,  as  belonging 
to  or  forming  one  of  the  attributes  of  the  cloud.  In  this 
way,  my  mind  forms  the  judgment  or  thought  expressed  by 
the  sentence,  Tlic  cloud  is  fleecy.  It  is  this  triple  unitx* 
which  the  sentence  expresses,  and  in  order  to  express  it, 
the  sentence  must  take  on  the  triple  form  of  the  thought. 

17.  Three  Parts  of  a  Sentence.  A  sentence  is  the  ex- 
pression of  a  thought  or  judgment  in  words.  Why  is  it 
necessary  that  the  sentence  have  the  triple  form  of  the 
thoucht  ? 


Introductory  xix 

(i).  A  subject,  expressing  the  thought  subject  of  the 
judgment. 

(2).  A  predicate,  expressing  the  tliought  predicate  of 
the  judgment. 

(^).  A  copula,  expressing  the  thought  relation  of  the 
judgment. 

A  picture  expresses  thought  but  it  does  not  express 
thought  as  the  sentence  does.  There  are  no  three  parts  to  the 
picture.  It  expresses  thought  by  resemblance.  Its  form  is 
determined  by  the  form  of  the  object  which  it  represents. 
But  there  is  no  resemblance  between  the  thought  and  the 
sentence  which  expresses  it,  such  as  exists  in  the  picture. 
The  thought  is  spiritual,  subjective;  the  sentence  is  phys- 
'cal,  objective.  The  sentence  is  adapted  to  the  thought 
for  the  purpose  of  expressing  it,  and  is  determined  by  the 
thought.  Since  the  thought  is  not  like  the  sentence  and  can- 
not be  like  it  in  any  other  particular,  except  in  the  number 
of  its  elements,  the  sentence,  in  order  to  express  the  thought, 
must  take  on  the  triple  form  of  the  thought.  The  thought 
imposes  its  form  upon  the  sentence. 

It  might  be  said  here,  that  grammarians,  while  recog- 
nizing the  fact  that  the  sentence  has  three*  parts,  have  not 
usually  considered  it  of  enough  importance  to  make  the  dis- 
tinction, at  all  times,  between  predicate  and  copula.  Since 
the  thought  predicate  and  thought  relation  are  so  frequently 
expressed  by  the  same  word,  they  have  fallen  into  the  in- 
accuracy of  dividing  sentences  into  two  parts,  a  subject  and 
a  predicate. 

18.  Dr.  Whitney  on  the  Verb.     The  greatest  linguistf 

*  See  Reed  and  Kellogg's  Higher  Lf^ssons  in  English,  beginning 
of  lesson  29.  Whitney's  Essentials  of  English  Grammar,  p.  158, 
par.  353.     "  Our  Language,"  p.  84.     Lee  and  Hadley's  Grammar,  pp. 

53-55- 

t  The  late  Dr.  William  Dwight  Whitney,  Professor  of  Sanskrit 
and  comparative  Philology  and  instructor  in  modern  languages  in 
Yale  College;  author  of  "Language  and  the  Shidy  of  Language," 
"  Life  and  Growth  of  Language."  etc 


XX  I  It  I  rod  lie  lory 

this  couiUry  has  known  says :  "  The  verb,  be,  in  ah  its 
various  forms,  has  come  to  stand  as  a  mere  connective  of 
assertion  between  a  subject  and  some  word  or  words  de- 
scribing- that  subject,  and  so  to  have  no  meaning  of  its  own 
except  that  of  signifying  the  assertion."  And  he  adds, 
"  Indeed,  every  verb  admits  of  being  taken  apart,  or  an- 
alyzed into  some  form  of  this  copula,  be,  which  expresses 
the  act  of  assertion,  and  a  predicate  noun  or  adjective  (es- 
pecially the  verbal  adjective,  the  present  participle),  ex- 
pressing the  condition  or  quality  or  action  predicated.  Thus, 
/  stand  is  nearly  /  am  erect,  or,  still  more  nearly,  /  am 
standing;  again,  They  beg,  is  equivalent  to  They  are  beg- 
gars, or,  They  arc  begging. 

In  the  above  examples,  each  sentence  has  three  parts. 
For  example,  in  They  are  begging,  the  word,  Thcv, 
is  the  subject  of  the  sentence  and  expresses  the  thought  sub- 
ject of  the  judgment;  the  word,  begging,  is  the  predicate 
of  the  sentence  and  expresses  the  thought  predicate  of  the 
judgment;  and  the  word,  are.  is  the  copula  of  the  sen- 
tence and  expresses  the  relation  which  the  mind  sees  between 
the  thought  subject  and  the  thought  predicate,  or  the  thought 
relation  of  the  judgment. 

Since  every  sentence  must  cointain  a  verb,  it  follows,  that, 
if  the  above  statement  from  Dr.  Whitney  is  correct,  every 
sentence  may  not  only  be  separated  into  three  parts,  but 
must  contain  three  parts,  and  no  group  of  words  can  be  a 
sentence  or  can  possibly  express  a  thought,  if  it  lacks  sub- 
ject or  predicate  or  copula. 

19.  Psychologists  and  Logicians.  In  addition  to  the 
foregoing  discussion  it  might  be  said  that  psychologists  and 
logicians  in  all  times  and  almost  wdthout  exception,  have  in- 
sisted that  the  sentence  must  have  three  parts  corresponding 
to  the  three  elements  of  the  judgment.  The  inaccuracy,  on 
the  part  of  grammarians,  has  come  about,  as  Dr.  C.  C. 
Everett,   of  Harvard   University,   points   out,  because  they 


Introductory  xxi 

have  divorced  grammar  from  logic.  This  is  sure  to  lead  to 
error,  since  the  sentence  is  only  an  instrument  for  express- 
ing the  thought,  and  grammar  is  directly  dependent  upon 
logic  at  every  point.  If  one  word  contains  two  parts  of  the 
sentence,  in  which  it  occurs,  that  is  all  the  more  reason  why 
the  analysis  of  the  student  should  be  subtle  enough  to  dis- 
cover that  fact  and  to  identify  each  part  of  the  sentence  with 
the  element  of  the  thought  which  it  expresses.  To  express 
two  elements  of  the  thought  in  one  part  of  the  sentence 
would  be  confusing  to  say  the  least. 

20.  The  Central  Idea  Stated.  This  fundamental  at- 
tribute in  the  nature  of  the  sentence,  as  it  is  determined  by 
the  nature  of  the  thought,  is  the  universal  truth  in  the  sub- 
ject of  grammar.  To  put  it  in  other  words,  the  most  gen- 
eral truth,  the  central  idea,  in  the  subject  of  grammar  is: 
The  three  elements  of  the  thought  as  they  are  accurately 
expressed  in  the  three  parts  of  the  sentence.  The  student 
must  see  the  sentence  as  the  expression  of  the  thought.  It 
expresses  thought  in  common  with  a  great  many  other 
things ;  the  picture,  the  piece  of  music,  the  statue,  all  ex- 
press thought ;  but  the  sentence  is  arbitrary,  expressing 
thought  in  a  particular  way,  by  means  of  its  triple  form.  The 
student  must  see  this. 

This  states  the  end  and  purpose  of  all  the  study  of  the 
science  of  grammar.  Why  does  the  student  study  the 
simple  sentence  or  the  declarative  sentence?  To  see  how 
the  three  elements  of  the  thought  are  expressed  in  those  lan- 
guage forms.  He  wants  to  know  how  the  sentence  form 
which  we  call  complex  is  adapted  to  express  the  thought. 
Why  does  he  study  noun  and  verb?  To  see  what  part  they 
play  in  the  expression  of  the  three  elements  of  the  thought 
in  the  three  parts  of  the  sentence ;  to  see  how  these  lan- 
guage forms  are  adapted  to  the  expression  of  the  thought 
and  how  thev  are  determined  bv  the  thought. 

21.  How  Do  We  Know  This  is  True?     How  do  we 


xxii  Introductory 

know  that  the  principle  just  stated  is  the  most  general,  and, 
ihcrefore,  the  governing  truth,  in  the  subject  of  grammar? 
Because  it  is  the  truth  which  organizes  the  subject.  It 
touches  every  fact  in  the  subject  and  is  the  essential  attribute 
of  every  such  fact.  It  is  the  truth  to  which  every  question 
concerning  the  subject  of  grammar  must  be  referred  for  its 
answer,  just  as  every  question  concerning  the  table  can  be 
answered  only  by  referring  it  to  the  central  idea  in  the  table. 
This  central  truth  in  the  subject  of  grammar  is  the  most 
general  truth  in  the  subject,  because  every  other  fact  of  the 
subject  depends  upon  it. 

22.  The  Value  of  This  View  to  the  Teacher.  The 
value  of  this  view  of  the  subject  to  the  teacher  may  be  made 
clear  by  pointing  out  what  the  governing  or  central  idea  of 
any  subject  will  indicate  to  the  teacher  concerning  that  sub- 
ject. The  organizing  truth  of  a  subject  will  determine  the 
following  points  with  regard  to  the  subject : 

(i).  It  will  set  off  the  subject-matter  of  the  study  from 
the  subject-matter  of  all  other  studies. 

(2).  It  will  indicate  the  logical  order  of  topics  in  the 
subject. 

(^).  It  will  determine  the  order  in  which  the  topics 
should  be  acquired  or  presented. 

(4).  It  will  indicate  the  important  and  unimportant  facts 
of  the  subject. 

(^).  It  will  indicate  the  important  and  unimportant  ele- 
ments in  each  fact  in  the  subject. 

(6).     It  will  test  the  definitions  of  the  subject. 

fy).  It  will  indicate  the  mental  steps  which  the  student 
must  take  to  master  the  subject,  and  the  materials  which 
the  teacher  must  put  before  the  pupil  in  order  to  mduce  his 
mind  to  take  these  steps. 

23.  The  Central  Idea  Sets  Off  Facts  of  Subject. 
There  must  be  some  reason  why  mathematicians  liave 
grouped  certain  facts  and  called  that  group  arithmetic.     It 


Introductory  xxiii 

is  not  mere  chance  chat  scientists  include  just  the  facts 
they  do  inchide  in  the  subject  of  physiology  and  exclude  all 
other  facts.  There  is  certainly  some  method  by  which  gram- 
marians have  been  able  to  decide  what  facts  constitute  the 
science  of  grammar.  It  is  the  central  idea  in  the  subject 
whicli  sets  oft  the  facts  of  that  subject  from  all  other  facts. 
The  central  idea  or  organizing  truth  of  the  subject  is  the  most 
universal  attribute  of  the  subject.  Any  fact  possessing  this 
attribute  is  a  fact  of  the  subject.  Any  fact  which  has  to  do 
with  the  accurate  expression  of  the  three  elements  of  the 
thought  in  the  sentence  form  is  a  fact  in  grammar. 

24.  It  Indicates  Logical  Order  of  Topics.  This  or- 
ganizing truth  is  the  most  general  or  universal  truth  in  the 
subject.  Every  fact  is  related  to  it.  Some  facts  in  the  sub- 
ject are  more  closely  related  to  it  than  others.  The  fact 
which  stands  most  closely  related  to  the  organizing  truth, 
is  first  in  the  subject ;  one  equally  near  in  its  relation  to  the 
central  truth  is  coordinate  with  it ;  one  containing  a  less 
degree  of  the  central  truth  is  subordinate  to  both  ;  and  so  on 
with  all  the  facts  of  the  subject. 

When  each  fact  is  given  its  place  in  the  subject,  according 
to  the  relation  which  it  bears  to  the  central  idea,  the  sub- 
ject is  organized.  This  means  that  the  order  of  dependence 
among  the  facts  of  the  subject  has  been  discovered ;  the  rela- 
tive importance  of  the  facts  and  of  the  elements  in  each 
fact  n;ay  be  seen  ;  and  the  teacher  sees  the  order  in  which 
the  facts  of  the  subject  should  be  presented  and  why  they 
should  be  presented  in  that  order. 

25.  It  Tests  Definitions.  The  organizing  truth  tests 
the  definitions  of  the  subject.  Every  fact  in  the  subject 
contains  a  certain  degree  of  the  general  truth  or  universal 
attribute  of  the  subject.  To  define  any  fact  of  the  subject 
is  to  show  its  relation  to  the  central  idea  of  the  subject.  A 
definition  of  the  noun  which  does  not  show  its  relation  to 
the  organizing  truth  of  grammar,  or  which  does  not  show 


XXIV 


Introductory 


how  it  helps  to  express  the  three  elements  of  the  thought  in 
the  three  parts  of  the  sentence,  is  faulty. 

26.  Organized  Knowledge.  When  the  student  sees 
the  central  idea  of  the  subject  of  grammar  and  all  it  indi- 
cates with  regard  to  the  subject,  as  set  forth  in  the  preceding 
discussion,  he  may  be  said  to  have  an  organized  or  scientific 
knowledge  of  the  subject. 

He  is  free  from  text-books,  except  as  he  uses  them  as  a 
means,  and  he  sees  the  subject  in  the  light  of  reason  and  in 
all  its  relations. 

Can  the  teacher  be  satisfied,  or  do  mtelligent  work  in  the 
school  room,  with  a  less  comprehensive  view? 

27.  A  Criticism.  The  most  severe  criticism  which 
could  be  pronounced  upon  grammarians  and  teachers  of 
grammar  is  that  made  by  Dr.  C.  C.  Everett,  of  Harvard, 
when  he  says,  they  have  divorced  grammar  from  logic.  And 
any  one  who  has  carefully  examined  our  text-books  in  gram- 
mar, or  observed  thoughtfully  much  of  the  work  done  in  our 
schools  in  this  subject,  must  admit  that  there  is  some  truth 
in  the  charge.  The  study  of  grammar  has  become  largely 
a  study  of  form ;  a  mere  classification  of  words ;  a  kind  of 
jugglery  with  symbols.  What  wonder  that  most  boys  and 
girls,  with  normal  minds,  hate  it ! 

28.  The  True  View.  But  if,  as  Dr.  Harris  says,* 
"  Grammar  defines  and  fixes  speech ;  by  its  mastery  man 
obtains  the  first  mastery  over  his  mind  as  an  instrument. 
*  *  *  It  is  the  key  to  all  that  is  spiritual.  *  *  •* 
Grammar  as  etymology  and  syntax  initiates  the  pupil  into 
the  general  forms  of  thought  itself.  Thus  there  branch  out 
logic,  psychology,  and  metaphysics,  as  well  as  the  various 
phases  of  philosophy.  Has  it  not  been  said,  indeed,  that 
the  father  of  logic  discovered  its  forms  through  grammar? 
Under  a  thin  veil  the  pupil  deals  with  pure  thought  when  he 


*  See  Report  of  Board  of  Public  Schools,  St.  Louis,  bound  vol- 
ume of  1872-73. 


Introductory  xxv 

studies  syntax  "" — if  this  be  true,  then  there  is  no  lack  of  op- 
portunity for  thinking  in  the  study  of  grammar. 

The  sentence  is  only  the  "  veil " ;  it  is  composed  of  mere 
words;  but  this  form  has  a  content,  the  thought,  and  to  un- 
derstand the  sentence,  the  student  must  be  able  to  separate, 
in  thought,  this  form  from  its  content.  The  student  must 
constantly  hold  these  two  elements  in  mind  while  dealing 
with  the  sentence.  When  he  considers  the  sentence,  Glass  is 
brittle,  he  views  it  as  the  expression  of  a  thought  composed 
of  three  elements : 

(i).     A  thought  subject,  the  idea,  glass. 

(2).     A  thought  predicate,  the  idea,  brittle. 

(^).  A  thought  relation  of  agreement  between  the  two. 
In  the  expi-ession  itself,  he  sees  parts  corresponding  to  the 
elements  of  the  thought : 

(i).  A  subject,  the  word,  glass,  expressing  the  thought 
subject. 

(2).  A  predicate,  the  word,  brittle,  expressing  the 
thought  predicate. 

(^).  A  copula  or  relational  clement,  the  word,  is,  ex- 
pressing the  thought  relation. 

29.  The  Two  Elements.  When  he  considers  the 
word,  so)ir,  in  the  sentence,  The  sour  apple  ripened  rap- 
idly, he  sees  two  elements ;  first,  the  form  or  word,  and  sec- 
ond, its  content.  The  word,  sour,  expresses  an  attribute 
which  belongs  to  the  idea  expressed  by  the  word,  apple.  So 
in  dealing  with  the  word,  rapidly,  he  sees  that  it  expresses 
an  attribute  of  the  attribute  expressed  by  the  word,  ripened. 
Tn  each  case  the  student  is  required,  first,  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  form  and  its  content,  and  second,  to  combine  the 
two  again  to  see  how  the  form  organizes  itself  around  the 
thought  and  is  determined  by  it. 

30.  Form  and  Content.  This  seeing  of  form  and  con- 
tent and  the  relation  bctAvcen  t1ie  two  cannot  be  too  strongly 
emphasized.      The  failure  on  the  part  of  grammarians  and 


xxvi  Introductory 

teachers  to  keep  it  in  mind  has  given  to  the  study  of  gram- 
mar its  formal  and  lifeless  nature.  The  study  of  the  sentence 
from  this  point  of  view  is  no  simple  mental  activity.  It 
requires  the  most  careful  attention  and  very  close  and  ac- 
curate thinking  on  the  part  of  the  student. 

He  is  first  conscious  of  the  sentence  form,  a  group  of 
words,  and  having  obtained  the  thought  which  it  expresses, 
he  proceeds  to  analyze  that  thought  into  its  elements.  He 
finds  that  there  are  three  principal  elements  in  every  thought ; 
a  thought  subject,  a  thought  predicate,  and  a  thought  rela- 
tion, each  of  which  may  be  composed  of  several  elements. 
Finally,  he  associates  each  element  of  the  thought  with  its 
corresponding  part  of  the  sentence,  thus  making  the  parts 
of  the  sentence,  the  relations  existing  among  them,  and 
their  relations  to  the  thought,  to  appear  clearly.  It  will  be 
seen  that  this  is  a  complex  activity,  the  student  being  re- 
quired to  hold  several  points  in  mind,  while  he  thinks  his 
way  carefully  through  the  sentence. 

These  two  processes  of  separating  form  and  content  from 
each  other,  and  each  one  into  its  elements,  analysis;  and 
combining  form  and  content  again  into  a  vital  unity,  in 
order  to  see  how  the  thought  determines  the  form,  synthesis, 
are  the  two  fundamental  processes  in  the  mastery  of  gram- 
mar. 

31.  The  Student  Must  Deal  With  Sentences.  The 
principles  already  discussed  would  indicate,  that  in  com- 
bining the  almost  infinite  variety  of  sentences  into  the  unity 
of  a  single  principle,  and  in  gaining  the  mastery  over  the 
sentence  as  an  instrument  for  communicating  thought,  it 
is  necessarv  for  the  student  to  deal  not  with  text-books,  but 
with  this  great  variety  of  sentences.  Text-books  are  helpful 
to  him  in  proportion  to  the  degree  in  which  they  put  the  sub- 
ject-matter of  grammar,  the  sentence,  before  him  in  such 
a  way  as  to  help  him  to  think  it  through  for  himself.  But 
if  all  texts  on  grammar  were  destroyed,  we  should  still  have 


Introductory  xxvii 

the  subject-matter  of  grammar,  the  sentence,  left;  and  the 
student  might  be  led  to  construct  the  entire  science  of  gram- 
mar from  his  study  of  sentences. 

GRAMMAR  A   LOGICAL  SUBJECT. 

Now  perhaps  enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  the  sub- 
ject of  grammar  is  a  subject  in  itself ;  that  it  does  not  depend 
upon  text-books ;  that  the  unit  of  it  is  the  sentence ;  and  that 
every  principle,  definition,  and  fact  of  the  subject  is  wrapped 
up  in  the  sentence.  The  subject  has  an  organization  of 
its  own,  because  it  is  a  body  of  facts  bound  together,  or 
unified  by  a  central  idea  or  truth,  which  runs  through  or  in- 
heres in  all  the  facts  of  the  subject. 

But  now  I  wish  to  discuss  the  second  proposition.  Gram- 
mar is  a  reasonable  or  logical  or  thought  subject,  not  an 
arbitrary  subject  to  be  taken  on  authority.  It  is  not  to  be 
bolted  or  swallowed  whole. 

32.  Definitions  and  Principles  of  the  Subject.  The 
definitions  and  principles  of  the  subject  of  grammar  do  not 
exi?t  and  thcv  arc  not  true,  because  Metcalf,  or  Sw-eet.  or 
Whitney  has  them  in  his  grammar.  These  men  did  not  make 
or  invent  the  principles  of  our  language  and  set  them  forth 
for  us  to  commit  to  memory  and  follow  the  remainder  of 
our  days,  nor  could  they,  or  any  other  men,  possibly  do  so. 
Grammarians  have  discovered  and  stated  the  principles  of 
language,  and  these  principles  are  true,  if  they  are  true, 
not  because  they  are  in  the  grammarians'  books,  but  they 
are  in  the  books  because  they  are  true. 

33.  The  Sentence  an  Instrument.  The  sentence  is 
merely  an  instrument  or  means ;  it  is  not  an  end  in  itself. 
The  only  legitimate  use  of  a  sentence  is  to  express  a  thought. 
A  sentence  is  a  group  of  words  which  expresses  a  thought. 
This  statement  expresses  the  only  true  function  of  the  sen- 
tence. One  mind  has  a  thought  to  be  communicated  to  an- 
other mind ;  the  sentence  is  the  vehicle  of  that  thought.    Tf 


xxviii  Infruductory 

there  were  no  thoughts  to  be  conveyed  trom  one  mind  to 
another,  we  should  have  no  need  for  a  senetnce. 

Since  the  sentence  is  an  instrument  or  a  means,  it  is  Hke 
all  other  instruments  or  means  in  one  particular ;  that  is,  it  is 
determined  by  that  which  it  is  to  do.  We  may  surely  say 
of  all  instruments  that  they  are  made  to  suit  the  work  which 
they  are  to  perform ;  that  which  they  are  to  do  determines 
them  in  every  part  and  attribute.  It  would  be  ridiculous  to 
think  that  a  man  would  attempt  to  make  a  mowing  machine 
without  understanding  the  nature  of  grass,  or  the  place  in 
which  it  grows.  He  might  make  it  so  that  it  would  run 
only  on  a  smooth  floor  or  concrete  walk. 

34.  The  Nature  of  an  Instrument.  Here  is  an  instru- 
ment called  the  garden  hoe.  Why  is  its  handle  five  feet 
long  instead  of  ten  feet  long?  Why  is  it  made  of  wood? 
Why  is  it  round  and  one  inch  in  diameter  instead  of  square 
and  three  inches  in  diameter?  Why  is  its  blade  four  inches 
wide  and  three  inches  long  instead  of  ten  inches  wide  and 
nine  inches  long?  Why  is  it  sharp?  Is  it  not  easily  seen 
that  it  is  the  purpose  of  the  instrument  which  determines 
these  points?  How  could  any  man  who  knew  nothing  of 
the  nature  of  plants  and  the  soil  in  which  they  grow ;  who 
did  not  know  that  weeds  grow  up  among  plants  and  must  be 
cut  out,  and  that  the  soil  about  the  roots  of  plants  must  be 
stirred ;  how  could  a  man  ignorant  of  the  nature  of  the  work 
which  a  garden  hoe  is  to  perform,  make  such  an  instrument? 
And  more,  how  could  a  person,  ignorant  of  all  this,  under- 
stand the  instrument? 

You  are  going  along  the  street  and  you  find  a  little  wheel 
with  tinv  cogs.  What  is  the  first  question  you  ask  about  it? 
Why  it  is  this:  Where  does  it  belong?  What  is  its  work? 
Is  it  a  part  of  a  watch  or  a  bicycle,  or  what  is  it  for? 

35.  How  We  Study  an  Instrument.  If  one  did  not 
imdcrstand  the  garden  hoc,  he  might  study  it  point  by  i)oint. 
He  might  see  that  the  handle  is  long  so  that  one  need  not 


Introductory  xxix 

stoop  over  too  much  in  digging  with  the  tool.  He  might  see 
that  the  blade  must  be  sharp  so  that  it  will  cut  the  weeds 
and  stir  the  hard  ground  easily,  and  so  on.  Each  time  he  no- 
tices a  characteristic  of  the  hoe,  he  sees  that  there  is  some- 
thing in  the  nature  of  the  work  which  it  is  to  do  that  requires 
that  characteristic  in  the  hoe.  When  he  has  mastered  it,  he 
sees  the  appropriateness  of  this  instrument  to  do  its  work, 
and  how  the  instrument  depends  upon  its  work  for  its  nature. 
Now  there  is  nothing  arbitrary  or  mechanical  in  the  proc- 
ess by  which  the  individual  has  mastered  the  garden  hoe, 
if  he  has  done  it  in  the  way  indicated  above.  He  takes  noth- 
ing for  granted  and  nothing  on  authority.  He  sees  the  cor- 
respondence between  the  nature  of  this  instrument  and  the 
nature  of  the  work  which  it  is  to  do,  and  if  forty  authors  had 
written  text-books  on  the  garden  hoe,  and  every  one  of  them 
had  said  the  handle  should  be  three  inches  in  diameter  and 
made  of  iron,  he  would  not  believe  them. 

36.  The  Sentence  Adapted  to  the  Thought.  Now  the 
sentence  is  like  the  garden  hoe,  in  that  it  is  an  instrument, 
and  has  a  work  to  perform ;  namely,  the  expression  of  the 
thought.  What  does  this  mean  ?  It  means  that  the  sentence 
is  adapted  to  the  work  of  expressing  the  thought  and  that 
it  is  determined  in  every  part  and  attribute  by  the  nature  of 
the  thought  which  it  expresses.  It  is  just  as  necessary  to 
understand  the  thought  and  its  nature  in  order  to  understand 
the  sentence,  as  it  is  to  understand  the  garden  in  order  to 
comprehend  the  garden  hoe. 

37.  Logic  and  Psychology  in  Grammar.  But  one  may 
say,  then,  how  can  you  keep  from  teaching  logic  and  psy- 
chology in  grammar?  No  one  who  teaches  grammar  scien- 
tifically can  keep  logic  and  psychology  out  of  his  work,  for 
grammar  is  dependent  upon  logic  at  every  point,  and  the  ex- 
planation of  every  grammatical  form  involves  the  examina- 
tion of  a  mental  process.  The  great  difficulty  is  that  gram- 
marians have  divorced  grammar  and  logic,  in  a  great  meas- 


XXX  htlrodnctory 

lire,  and  this  has  given  to  the  subject  its  lifeless  and  formal 
nature.  It  has  made  it  a  mechanical,  deadening,  memory 
grind,  instead  of  an  intelligent,  healthful,  life-giving,  mental 
gymnastic. 

One  might  turn  to  any  part  of  the  subject  of  grammar  for 
an  illustration  of  the  fact,  that  the  sentence  is  adapted  to  the 
expression  of  the  thought  and  is  determined  in  every  part 
and  attribute  by  the  nature  of  the  thought ;  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  give  any  reasonable  explanation  of  language  forms 
w^ithout  viewing  them  in  relation  to  the  thought  which  they 
express.  And  I  wish  now  to  illustrate  at  some  length,  this 
fundamental  view  of  grammar. 

The  entire  subject  of  grammar  falls  into  four  great  sec- 
tions of  work : 

Section  I. 

THE  STUDY  OF  THE  SENTENCE  AS  A  WHOLE. 

38.  In  the  first  Section  of  the  work,  only  those  at- 
tributes or  characteristics  of  the  sentence  which  are  uni- 
versal are  noticed.  The  student  has  as  many  different  kinds 
of  sentences  as  can  be  obtained  placed  before  him,  and  in  all 
this  variety,  he  is  asked  to  see  the  universal  attribute,  which 
makes  them  all  sentences.  He  finds  that  some  of  these  in- 
dividual exam.ples  are  long  and  some  short ;  some  declarative 
and  some  interrogative ;  some  simple  and  some  complex ; 
some  inverted  order  and  some  natural  order;  but  one  char- 
acteristic is  found  in  each  of  them.  Not  every  sentence  is 
imperative ;  not  every  one  has  a  compound  subject ;  but  they 
all  have  either  explicit  or  implicit  in  them,  the  triple  form, 
expressing  the  thought. 

39.  Unity.  This  fact  enables  him  to  unify  this  great 
variety  of  sentences  and  to  see  the  unity  in  the  thought  of 
each  sentence.  It  is  not  an  easy  matter  for  the  student  to 
grasp  the  unity  of  the  thought  in  a  long  and  involved  sen- 
tence ;   to   see  the  thought   subject  and   thought  predicate, 


Introducfory  xxxi 

which  the  mind  unites  hy  an  act  of  thinking  into  the  triple 
unity — the  thought,  which  the  sentence  expresses.  But  this 
is  what  he  must  do  if  he  ever  masters  the  sentence,  either  as 
an  instrument  in  expressing  his  own  thought,  or  as  a  medium 
for  obtaining  the  thoughts  of  others. 

40.  The  Close  of  Section  I.  At  the  close  of  this  phase 
of  his  study  in  grammar,  the  student  should  be  able  to  take 
any  sentence,  distinguish  between  its  form  and  content,  an- 
alyze its  content  into  its  three  essential  elements,  see  the 
triple  organic  form  of  the  sentence  as  determined  by  the 
thought,  the  relation  of  each  element  of  the  thought  to  its 
corresponding  part  of  the  sentence,  and  should  be  able  to 
express  the  result  of  his  thinking  in  some  concise  form  such 
as  the  following: 

The  large  hook  is  certainly  very  cheap.  This  is  a  sen- 
tence, because  it  is  the  expression  of  a  thought  in  words. 
The  subject  of  the  sentence  is  the  words,  The  large  hook, 
because  they  express  the  thought  subject.  The  predicate 
of  the  sentence  is  the  words,  7'ery  cheap,  because  they 
express  the  thought  predicate.  The  copula  of  the  sentence 
is  the  words,  is  certainly,  because  they  express  the  thought 
relation,  or  unifying  act  of  the  mind. 

41.  Do  Not  Make  the  Work  Formal.  It  is  not  in- 
tended that  the  above  form  shall  always  be  used  by  the 
student  in  expressing  the  result  of  his  thinking.  The  chief 
thing  is  to  have  his  mind  perform  the  two  mental  processes 
of  analysis  and  synthesis  as  indicated  above,  and  any  set  form 
of  expressing  the  result  is  rather  to  be  avoided,  as  having  a 
tendency  to  make  the  student  mechanical  and  formal. 

42.  The  Main  Idea.  Throughout  this  entire  first  sec- 
tion of  the  work,  the  student's  attention  is  directed  to  but 
one  thing — the  universal  sentence  form  as  determined  by 
the  thought.  He  is  not  permitted  to  say  that  the  idea  ex- 
pressed by  the  word,  hook,  in  the  above  sentence,  is  the 
thought  subject,  or  that  the  word.  hook,  is  the  subject  of 


-xxxii  Iiilrodiicfory 

the  sentence ;  but  lie  must  see  each  element  of  the  thought 
and  each  part  of  the  sentence  as  a  unit.  The  idea  expressed 
by  the  words,  The  large  book,  for  that  is  one  idea,  though 
a  complex  one,  is  the  thought  subject,  and  all  these  words 
form  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 

When  the  student  is  able  to  see  in  any  sentence,  each  one 
of  the  three  elements  of  the  thought,  which  is  expressed,  and 
see  it  as  a  unit,  no  matter  how  complex  it  may  be;  when 
he  sees  each  of  the  essential  parts  of  the  sentence  in  the  same 
way ;  when  he  has  combined  the  whole  into  an  organic  unity, 
in  which  he  sees  the  sentence  as  standing  for  or  expressing 
the  thought,  he  is  ready  to  pass  from  the  first  section  of  the 
grammar  work. 

43.  Careful  Work.  It  will  usually  take  considerable 
careful  work  with  the  student  to  enable  him  to  do  what  is 
indicated  above,  but  it  is  worth  the  effort,  for  the  student 
who  has  this  ability  is  forever  free  from  mechanical  or  formal 
work  in  the  subject,  and  is  a  long  stride  on  his  way  toward 
the  mastery  of  grammar  as  based  upon  logic. 

Section  II. 

THE   STUDY  OF   CLASSES  OF  SENTENCES. 

44.  In  the  second  Section  of  the  work,  the  pupil  still 
deals  with  sentences  as  wholes,  but  he  finds  there  are  like- 
nesses and  differences  among  them  which  enable  him  to 
classify  them. 

45.  The  Basis  of  Meaning.  He  notices  that  one  kind 
expresses  a  phase  of  thought  which  appeals  to  the  intellect. 
It  commimicates  some  information. 

Another  kind  also  expresses  a  phase  of  thought  which  ap- 
peals to  the  intellect,  but  it  inquires  for  information,  asks 
for  some  element  of  the  thought  which  is  unknown  and 
sought. 

Still  another  kind  expresses  a  phase  of  thought  which 


Introductory  xxxiii 

stirs  the  emotions.  Some  information  may  be  commu- 
nicated, but  it  is  to  the  end  of  awakening  feeling. 

Lastly,  he  notices  that  some  sentences  express  thought 
which  is  intended  to  produce  an  act  of  will. 

So,  on  the  basis  of  meaning,  or  phase  of  mental  activity 
which  is  prominent,  or  power  of  mind  addressed,  or  chief 
purpose,  he  divides  sentences  into  the  following  classes : 
Declarative,  Interrogative,  Exclamatory,  Imperative. 

46.  The  Basis  of  Form.  Some  thoughts  are  simple 
in  structure ;  some  are  complex ;  some  are  compound.  The 
pupil  will  see  that  sentences  must  be  of  these  kinds,  also, 
since  they  express  the  thoughts.  He,  therefore,  classifies 
sentences  on  the  basis  of  form,  as  determined  by  the  number 
and  the  relation  of  the  thoughts  expressed,  into  the  following 
classes :    Simple,  Complex,  and  Compound. 

47.  The  Close  of  Section  II.  When  the  pupil  is  able 
to  view  sentences,  as  determined  by  the  thought,  in  the 
ways  just  indicated,  he  is  ready  to  pass  from  the  second  sec- 
tion of  the  grammar  work. 

Section  III. 

THE    STUDY   OF   THE   ORGANIC    PARTS   OF   THE   SENTENCE. 

48.  Parts  of  the  Sentence.  In  the  third  Section  of 
the  work;  the  study  of  the  organic  parts  of  the  sentence  is 
taken  up.  Subjects  of  sentences  are  not  all  of  the  same  kind. 
Some  are  simple,  consisting  of  but  one  word  ;  others  are  long 
and  complex.  This  requires  a  combination  of  words,  for, 
however  long  the  subject  of  the  sentence  may  be,  it  must  be 
a  unity.  This  means  that  the  pupil  must  deal  with  the 
words  expressing  the  unified  thought  subject,  just  as  he  has 
dealt  with  the  sentence,  which  expresses  the  unity  called  the 
thought.  He  must  separate  form  from  content;  the  extent 
and  content  of  ideas  present  themselves  to  him ;  and  he 
sees   the   whole   subject   of  modifiers   growing  out  of  this 


xxxiv  Introductory 

distinction.  Pie  discusses  the  thought  material  or  ideas,  out 
of  which  thought  suhjects,  thought  predicates,  and  thought 
relations  are  made,  and  he  sees  how  the  words  composing  the 
subjects,  predicates,  and  copulas  of  sentences  may  be  unified, 
because  of  the  ideas  they  express.  He  sees,  for  example, 
that  in  the  sentence,  The  old  arm-chair  is  broken,  he  could 
not  say  that  the  word,  arm-chair,  is  the  subject  of  the 
sentence,  because  the  mind  does  not  assert  the  idea,  broken, 
of  the  idea,  arm-chair;  but  of  the  idea,  arm-chair,  as  changed 
by  the  ideas,  the  and  old. 

49.  The  Close  of  Section  III.  Thus,  all  the  different 
forms  which  subjects,  predicates,  and  copulas  may  have, 
are  seen  to  be  adapted  to  the  expression  of  thought  subjects, 
thought  predicates,  and  thought  relations  and  determined  by 
them.  We  have  principal  words  and  subordinate  or  modify- 
ing words  in  these  parts  of  the  sentence,  because  we  have 
principal  and  subordinate  ideas  in  the  elements  of  the  thought 
expressed  in  these  parts  of  the  sentence. 

Section   IV. 

PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

50.  Glasses  of  Words.  In  the  last  Section  of  the 
grammar  work,  the  student  finishes  the  work  for  which  he 
has  laid  the  foundation  in  the  Section  immediately  preceding, 
so  that  the  last  Section  is  to  the  third,  what  the  second  was 
to  the  first.  In  the  third  Section,  he  became  familiar  with 
the" different  kinds  of  ideas,  expressed  by  words;  namely,  ob- 
jects of  thought,  attributes,  and  ideas  of  relation.  On  that 
ijasis,  he  classified  words  into  the  following  classes :  sub- 
stantive, attributive,  and  relational  words.  Two  other 
kinds,  he  learned,  were  sometimes  used  without  much  mean- 
ing, merely  to  fill  out  the  form  of  the  sentence ;  namely,  ex- 
pletives and  interjections. 

51.  Close  of  Section  IV.     Now,  in  the  fourth  Section, 


Introductory  xxxv 

by  observing  likenesses  and  differences,  he  subdivides  these 
classes  of  words,  and  thus  arrives  at  "  Parts  of  Speech." 
When  the  pupil  sees  the  parts  of  speech,  with  all  their  prop- 
erties, in  the  same  light  in  which  he  has  seen  all  the  other 
parts  of  the  sentence,  as  indicated  in  the  previous  discussion, 
he  has  finished  the  fourth  Section  of  the  grammar  work, 
and  may  be  said  to  have  fairly  mastered  the  science  of  the 
subject. 

52.  Conditions  of  Mastering  the  Subject.  This  fourth 
Section  of  work  can  never  be  mastered,  it  will  be  seen,  until 
the  pupil  sees  clearly  that  there  arc  distinctions  in  thought 
which  give  to  the  noun,  gender,  person,  number,  and  case ; 
to  the  verb,  voice,  mode,  tense,  and  so  forth.  If  the  action 
of  the  mind  in  dealing  with  objective  things  did  not  leave 
with  it  a  notion  of  one  or  more  than  one,  the  noun  never 
would  have  had  that  property  which  we  call  number ;  and  if 
it  were  not  possible  for  the  mind  to  think  a  relation  between 
a  thought  subject  and  a  thought  predicate  in  past  time,  pres- 
ent time,  and  so  forth,  the  verb  would  never  have  had  that 
property  which  we  call  tense. 

53.  A  Thought  Study.  This  view  of  the  subject 
makes  grammar  a  thought  study,  not  a  set  of  rules  and  prin- 
ciples to  be  accepted  upon  authority — and  committed  to 
memory ;  but  a  thing  which  is  logical  and  is  to  be  reasoned 
out  by  the, pupil.  Tt  is  not  a  mere  study  of  forms,  but  a  study 
of  forms  as  determined  by  the  content  which  they  express. 

GRAMMAR    IS   AN    INDUCTIVIi:   .SUBJECT. 

54.  The  Laboratory  Method.  Tt  will  be  evident,  I 
think,  that  the  work  which  follows  and  constitutes  the  sub- 
ject-matter of  this  text,  is  arranged  according  to  the  prin- 
ciples set  forth  in  this  discussion  and  with  this  thought  in 
mind ;  that  grammar,  when  properly  studied,  is  an  inductive 
subject,  and  should  be  presented  according  to  what  might 
appropriately  be  called  the  laboratory  method. 


XXX  vi  Introductory 

55.  Compared  With  the  Study  of  the  Natural  Sciences. 
if  the  scientific  student  wishes  to  make  himself  master  of 
tlie  mushroom,  he  goes  out  into  the  fields  and  gathers  a  speci- 
men of  every  variety.  He  examines  the  specimens  carefully 
and  tries  to  discover  the  common  characteristics  whicli  make 
them  all  mushrooms.  By  the  aid  of  his  glass  and  knife,  he 
finds  out  how  the  specimens  differ  and  on  the  basis  of  the 
fundamental  differences,  he  separates  them  into  classes.  He 
takes  advantage  of  the  experience  of  other  men,  in  work- 
ing with  mushrooms,  as  they  have  recorded  it  for  him  in 
texts.  By  means  of  this  experience,  he  verifies  his  own  con- 
clusions. Often,  by  means  of  this  experience,  he  finds  that 
he  has  made  mistakes  in  his  work,  and  he  returns  to  his 
specimens  to  examine  them  more  carefully  and  discover  his 
errors.  When  he  has  completed  his  work,  he  is  an  authority 
on  mushrooms  himself. 

56.  Grammar  Can  be  Studied  in  this  Way.  Why  can 
not  the  student  of  grammar  study  the  clause  in  this  way? 
He  will  not  have  so  much  difficulty  in  collecting  his  spec- 
imens as  the  student  of  mushrooms  had.  He  will  need 
neither  microscope  nor  scalpel.  He  can  see  that  each  of  his 
specimens  has  a  subject,  predicate,  and  copula,  and  is  used 
as  a  part  of  a  sentence  just  as  easily,  perhaps  more  easily, 
than  the  student  of  mushrooms  saw  the  common  character- 
istics of  mushrooms.  He  can  also  see  distinctions  which  will 
enable  him,  on  different  bases,  to  separate  them  into  classes ; 
as,  substantive,  attributive ;  simple,  complex,  compound ;  ad- 
jective, adverbial,  and  so  forth.  In  short,  the  entire  subject 
of  clauses  can  be  thought  out  from  examples,  just  as  the 
entire  subject  of  mushrooms  was  thought  out  from  the 
specimens,  by  the  student. 

57.  The  Teacher  and  the  Text  to  Aid  the  Pupil.  Tt 
is  not  held  that  the  pupil  in  the  grades  can  do  this  without 
the  aid  of  the  teacher  and  the  text.  The  teacher  will  stim- 
ulate and  direct  his  thought  by  proper  questions  and  encour- 


Introductory  xxxvii 

agement.  The  text  will  disclose  to  him  the  errors  in  his 
conclusions  and  send  him  back  to  study  the  examples  more 
carefully.  But  when  he  is  through  with  the  subject,  he  will 
see  all  of  grammar  in  the  sentence  and  it  will  be  a  reason- 
able thing  to  him,  not  a  set  of  dry,  arbitrary  rules. 

58.  The  Difference  Between  Life  and  Death.  The 
difference  between  grammar  studied  in  this  way,  and  tech- 
nical grammar  as  it  is  too  often  taught,  is  the  difference 
between  life  and  death  to  the  student ;  it  is  the  difference  be- 
tween an  intelligent,  healthful,  life-giving,  mental  gymnastic, 
and  a  mechanical,  deadening,  verbal  memory  grind.  The 
one  process  leaves  him  with  the  arbitrary  technic  of  the  sub- 
ject, a  mere  crust,  which  he  loathes;  the  other  makes  him 
feel,  as  Dr.  C.  C.  Everett*  has  said,  that,  "  There  is  hardly 
anything  more  interesting  than  to  see  how  the  laws  of  gram- 
mar, which  seem,  at  first  sight  so  hard  and  arbitrary,  are  sim- 
ply the  laws  of  the  expression  of  logical  relations  in  con- 
crete form." 


*  See  his   "  Science   of  Thought,"   a   book   which   no   teacher  of 
grammar  should  be  without,  p.  82. 


Suggestions  for  Composition 

To  communicate  tliought  should  be  the  dominant  mo- 
tive of  all  composition  work.  A  child's  imagination  should 
be  stimulated  before  he  is  asked  to  write,  and  then,  when  the 
discourse  impulse  is  upon  him,  he  should  be  given  an  oppor- 
tunity to  express  his  thought.  After  this  expression  he 
should  be  led  to  criticise  his  papers  from  the  standpoint  of 
an  audience,  asking  himself  if  he  has  so  expressed  his 
thoughts  that  they  could  be  easily  comprehended  by  another 
person.  The  study  of  form  should  be  brought  in  as  a  means 
to  this  end. 

The  work  in  composition  in  this  book  aims  to  give 
the  pupil,  while  working  under  the  impulse  of  definite 
thoughts  to  express,  practice  in  the  forms  of  discourse  natur- 
al to  children  of  the  grammar  school  age,  and  at  the  same 
time,  to  give  them  some  knowledge  of  the  technique  of  writ- 
ing. 

The  work  begins  with  tlie  study  of  the  composition  as  a 
whole,  and  then,  by  easy  stages,  develops  the  paragraph,  the 
sentence,  and  the  choice  of  words.  The  work  is  unified,  its 
parts  forming  a  natural  sequence,  but  each  part  is,  at  the 
same  time,  complete  and  interesting  in  itself. 

The  forms  of  discourse  used  are  not  those  of  the  col- 
lege rhetoric,  description,  exposition,  narration  and  argu- 
mentation, which  are  seldom  found  in  pure  form  anywhere, 
I)ut  those  more  natural  to  children,  the  review,  the  descri])- 
tion  as  the  word  picture,  the  character  sketch,  and  the  storv. 

The  revicio  has  been  taken  up  first  because,  although  it  is 
the  most  difficult,  it  gives  the  pupil  a  chance  to  write  away 
from  the  text  of  his  book,  and  leads  him  to  see  that  one  valu- 
able thing  in  a  composition  is  an  honest  expression  of  his 
observation  and  opinions. 


Suggestions  for  Composition  xxxix 

The  work  in  description  gives  the  pupil  an  opportunity  to 
be  really  creative.  In  this  work  he  will  see  that  fundamental 
thing,  the  possibilities  of  the  sentence  and,  further,  the 
power  and  beauty  which  comes  through  the  use  of  simple 
figurative  language.  He  will  enjoy  painting  with  words 
as  much,  or  even  more,  than  he  does  with  colors. 

In  the  character  sketch,  some  of  the  work  started  in  the 
review  and  in  description  is  carried  on.  It  gives  an  excel- 
lent opportunity  for  that  which  is  not  strictly  composition 
work,  but  which  should  not  be  lost  sight  of  at  an\'  time,  the 
defining  of  the  ideals  of  character. 

The  story  gives  vent  to  that  most  natural  impulse,  the 
narration  of  events.  In  it  are  studied  the  first  elements  of 
plot  and  dialogue. 

Unity  and  other  things  which  made  for  clearness  have 
been  emphasized  in  the  work  in  the  review,  beauty  and 
vividness  in  the  work  on  description  and  in  story  telling 
some  things  which  make  for  interest.  This  work  has  per- 
force been  very  elementary. 

The  subject  matter  used  as  a  basis  for  the  work  is  such 
as  has  stood  the  test  of  the  critical  judgment  of  many  chiJ- 
(Iren.  It  appeals  to  their  interests,  is  varied  and  good  and 
yet  popular. 

The  method  of  the  presentation  of  the  subject  matter  and 
the  technique  has  been  the  following : 

1.  The  reading  of  a  selection. 

2.  Questions  to  bring  out  certain  kinds  of  thought. 

3.  Directions  for  writing. 

4.  A  study  in  technique. 

5.  A  method  of  criticism. 

This  order  is  important,  for  by  placing  the  study  of 
technique  after  the  expression  of  thought  the  cramping  of 
thought  for  the  expression  of  form  is  avoided. 


il  Suggestions  for  Composition 

Many  of  the  papers  required  of  the  children  have  been 
brief.  QuaHty  rather  than  quantity  has  been  sought.  Brev- 
ity and  interest  do  away  with  the  fatigue  and  discourage- 
ment which  come  to  both  teachers  and  pupils  from  pro- 
longed aimless  writing.  The  work  outlined  in  the  book 
should  be  largely  supplemented  from  other  sources :  the 
daily  experiences  of  the  children,  current  events  and  work 
in  other  studies.  The  review  and  character  sketch  work 
in  well  with  the  study  of  literature ;  description  with  ge- 
ography, civics,  science,  and  history ;  and  the  story  telling 
with  all. 


w 


THE   WOODS  IN   WINTER 
(See  page  i88) 


An 

English  Grammar 

The  First  Section 
*  Chapter  I 

THE  SUBJECT  AS  A  WHOLE 

Introductory.  Purpose  of  the  Study  of  Eng- 
lish Grammar.  We  think  in  language,  and  it  is 
the  most  important  means  or  tool  which  we  use 
in  communicating  with  our  friends  and  other 
people.  The  mastery  of  it  is,  therefore,  of  the  ut- 
most importance  to  every  one  of  us.  Skill  in  its 
use  enables  us  to  think  clearly,  to  read  under- 
standingly,  and  to  speak  and  write  with  grace, 
ease,  and  force. 

There  are  several  subjects  of  study  which  help 
us  directly  in  obtaining  a  command  of  the  Eng- 
lish language.  English  grammar  is  one  of  these, 
and  it  is  therefore  closely  allied  to  our  home  life, 
our  social  life,  and  our  school  life.  Do  you  know 
which  of  the  following  sentences  are  correct,  and 
whv?* 


*  Chapter  One  may  simply  be  read  carefully.     It  is  preliminary 
The  real  study  of  the  subject  begins  with  Chapter  Two. 


2  An  English  Grammar 

1.  I  saw  my  friend,  who  T  once  thought  would  succeed  in 
business,  fail. 

2.  I  saw  my  friend,  whom  I  once  thought  would  succeed 
in  business,  fail. 

3.  One  of  the  children  are  going. 

4.  One  of  the  children  is  going. 

Some  of  you  may  have  to  ask  your  teacher  or 
some  older  person  to  tell  you  which  sentences  are 
grammatically  correct,  or  if  you  do  know  which 
are  correct,  perhaps  you  may  not  know  why.  The 
study  of  English  grammar  will  enable  you  to  de- 
termine right  and  wrong  forms  of  language  for 
yourself,  and  to  know  zvhy  they  are  right  or  wrong. 

How  do  you  distinguish  an  educated  from  an 
uneducated  person  ?  When  you  meet  a  stranger, 
do  3^ou  not  judge  him  largely  by  his  language? 
If  he  uses  good  English,  and  seems  to  be  fairly 
well-informed,  you  decide  that  he  is  an  educated 
person.  If  he  uses  poor  English,  you  think  he  is 
illiterate.  This  method  of  judging*  people  is  often 
unjust,  for  many  very  well-educated  people  use  in- 
correct English ;  but  people  generally  will  judge  you 
in  this  way.  The  use  of  incorrect  English,  then, 
has  a  tendency  to  injure  one's  chances  in  life  and 
to  destroy  one's  usefulness. 

Besides,  the  English  language  is  the  mother 
tongue  in  this  country  and  we  should  all  have 
pride  enough  in  it,  and  patriotism  enough  to  learn 
to  speak  it,  and  write  it  well.  The  German  people 
love  their  language.     They  enter  into  long  dis- 


The  Subject  as  a  Whole  3 

cussions  to  show  that  the  German  spoken  at 
Court,  or  the  German  used  on  the  stage  is  the 
purer  form  of  the  language.  Why  should  not 
American  boys  and  girls  be  proud  of  their  mother 
tongue  and  desire  to  use  it  well? 

The  subject  of  English  grammar  also  forces 
us  to  think  logically.  There  is  no  better  subject 
to  train  the  mind  to  make  distinctions  and  to 
reach  conclusions  from  the  consideration  of  facts. 
It  is,  therefore,  a  means  of  education  aside  from 
its  practical  uses. 

I.  The  Literal  Meaning  of  Words.  We  are 
often  helped  to  understand  a  subject  by  discovering 
the  literal  meaning  of  the  word  that  names  it.  To 
obtain  the  literal  meaning  of  a  word,  we  must : 

1.  Find  the  language  from  which  it  is  derived; 
as,  Greek,  Latin,  French,  or  whatever  it  may  be. 

2.  Obtain  the  parts  of  the  word  in  the  language 
from  which  it  is  derived. 

3.  Find  the  meaning  of  each  part  in  the  lan- 
guage from  which  the  word  is  derived. 

4.  Then  summarize,  or  jmt  the  meaning  of  these 
parts  together. 

This  gives  the  literal  or  original  meaning  of 
the  word. 

To  illustrate,  we  may  take  the  word,  definition. 
In  our  study  of  grammar,  we  shall  be  constructing 
and  dealing  with  definitions  of  many  different  top- 
ics ;  as,  subject,  predicate,  noun,  case,  and  voice.    It 


4  All  English  Grammar 

is  well  that  we  should  know  what  a  definition  is 
and  what  \\q  must  do  to  form  one  properly.  The 
literal  meaning  of  the  word  gives  us  some  light 
upon  thi'^. 

The  word,  definition,  comes  from  the  Latin,  de, 
meaning  around,  ahout,  from;  fimre,  meaning  to 
bound,  to  limit,  to  separate;  and  Hon,  meaning  the 
act  of.  Literally,  then,  the  word  means  the  act  of 
bounding  about,  limiting  around,  or  separating 
from.  Now  this  is  just  what  we  do  when  we  de- 
fine a  thing  properly.  We  bound  it  about,  sep- 
arate it  from  everything  else,  or  draw^  a  line  men- 
tally around  it. 

The  literal  meaning  of  words  may  be  obtained 
from  any  modern  dictionary.  In  "  The  Literna- 
tional "  it  will  usually  be  found  the  first  thing  under 
the  word.  In  "The  Standard"  it  follows  the  defi- 
nition of  the  word. 

2.  The  Marks  of  a  Good  Definition.  To  form 
an  accurate,  logical  definition  of  a  thing,  we  must 
do  three  things : 

1.  Name  the  thing  to  be  defined. 

2.  Put  it  into  the  smallest  known  class. 

3.  Give  the  marks,  characteristics,  or  attributes 
which  set  it  off  or  distinguish  it  from  all  other  mem- 
bers of  that  class. 

To  illustrate,  we  may  take  the  definition  of  an 
island.  An  island  is  a  small  body  of  land  sur- 
rounded by  water.     When  we  say,  an  island,  we 


The  Subject  as  a  Whole  5 

have  named  the  thing  to  be  defined.  \Mien  we  say, 
is  a  small  body  of  land,  we  have  put  it  into  the  small- 
est known  class.  When  we  say,  surrounded  by 
zvater,  we  have  given  the  mark,  characteristic,  or 
attribute  which  separates  it  from  all  other  members 
of  its  class  or  all  other  small  bodies  of  land,  such  as, 
the  cape,  promontory,  and  isthmus. 

We  must  name  the  thing  to  be  defined,  in  giving 
a  definition,  in  order  to  get  it  clearly  before  the 
mind.  It  is  better  to  put  it  into  the  smallest  class 
because  that  gives  us  more  information  about  it  and 
also  leaves  us  fewer  individuals  or  members  from 
which  to  distinguish  it.  In  defining  the  horse,  for 
example,  we  may  put  it  into  the  class  animals  or 
we  may  put  it  into  the  class  quadrupeds.  It  is 
much  better,  however,  to  put  it  into  the  smaller 
class,  quadrupeds,  for  that  gives  us  more  informa- 
tion about  it ;  for  example,  that  it  is  four-footed.  It 
also  makes  the  third  step  in  the  definition  easier, 
for  we  do  not  then  have  to  distinguish  it  from 
bipeds,  but  only  from  other  quadrupeds.  But  we 
must  put  the  thing  to  be  defined  into  a  known  class 
whether  that  class  be  large  or  small,  because  the 
mind  immediately  gives  to  the  thing  to  be  defined 
the  attributes  of  the  class  into  which  we  put  it.  If 
the  class  be  unknown,  the  mind  can  have  no  attri- 
butes to  give  to  the  thing  to  be  defined.  It  does  not 
help  us  to  put  the  thing  to  be  defined  into  an  un- 
known class.  We  should  test  all  our  definitions  by 
these  requirements. 


f»  An  EnglisJi  Grammar 

3.  The  Place  of  Grammar  in  the  Language 
Group.  Grammar  belongs  to  that  group  of  sub- 
jects which  we  call  language  studies  because  it 
deals  with  or  has  for  its  subject-matter  one  phase 
of  language.  Any  subject  which  deals  with  lan- 
guage, or  has  language  for  its  subject-matter  or 
unit,  is  a  language  study.  Geography  is  not  a  lan- 
guage study  because  it  deals  with  or  has  for  its  sub- 
ject-matter or  unit  the  facts  and  phenomena  of  the 
earth. 

The  other  subjects  of  this  group  of  language 
studies  which  we  study  in  the  public  schools  are: 
literature,  rhetoric,  reading,  composition,  orthog- 
raphy, orthoepy,  and  word  analysis. 

Orthography,  orthoepy,  and  word  analysis  deal 
with  or  have  for  their  subject-matter  that  unit  of 
language  which  we  call  the  word. 

Composition,  rhetoric,  reading  and  literature 
deal  with  or  have  for  their  subject-matter  that 
unit  of  language  which  we  call  discourse. 

Grammar  deals  with  or  has  for  its  subject- 
matter  that  unit  of  language  which  we  call  the 
sentence. 

We  might  think,  on  first  thought,  that  when  we 
are  studying  "  parts  of  speech  "  the  unit  with  which 
we  are  dealing  is  the  word.  A  little  thought  will 
show  us,  however,  that,  although  we  are  studying 
words,  the  word  is  not  the  unit.  If  we  ask  what 
part  of  speech  the  word,  fine,  is,  we  are  unable  to 
tell  until  we  see  it  in  a  sentence.     If  we  say.  If  is  a 


The  Subject  as  a  Whole  7 

fine  day,  the  word,  fine,  is  an  adjective.  In  the  sen- 
tence, The  fine  was  remitted,  the  word,  fine,  is  a 
noun.  While  in  the  sentence,  /  fine  you  ten  dollars, 
the  word,  fine,  is  a  verb.  Thus  we  see  that  we  can- 
not even  tell  what  part  of  speech  a  word  is  until 
we  see  it  in  a  sentence. 

If  we  want  to  know  the  case  of  the  word,  pen, 
we  cannot  tell  until  we  see  the  word  used  in  a  sen- 
tence. In  the  sentence.  My  pen  is  new,  the  word, 
pen,  is  in  the  nominative  case,  while  in  the  sen- 
tence, I  hold  my  pen,  the  word,  pen,  is  in  the  object- 
ive case.  Much  more  might  be  said  to  show  that 
whenever  we  are  dealing  with  words  in  the  subject 
of  grammar,  the  sentence  is  still  the  unit.  We  deal 
with  words  in  grammar  only  as  parts  of  sentences. 
In  fact,  the  name  "parts  of  speech,"  implies  that 
there  is  a  whole  of  speech.  The  whole  of  speech  in 
grammar  is  the  sentence. 

4.  The    Distinguishing    Mark   of    Grammar. 

The  distinguishing  mark  of  grammar,  then,  is  that 
it  has  for  its  subject-matter  or  unit  the  sentence. 
No  other  language  study  deals  with  the  sentence  in 
this  way,  or  has  the  sentence  for  its  subiect-matter 
or  unit. 

5.  Grammar  Defined.  Grammar  is  that  lan- 
guage study  which  has  for  its  subject-matter  or 
unit  the  sentence.  Test  this  definition  and  all 
your  definitions  by  the  marks  of  a  true  definition, 
as  oriz>en  in  Section  2. 


8  An  English  Grammar 

6.  Outline  of  the  Language  Studies.  An  out- 
line of  the  language  studies,  showing  the  place 
of  grammar  among  them,  is  as  follows: 

I.  Definition.  A  language  study  is  a  study 
that  has  for  its  subject-matter  or  unit  some  phase 
of  language;  as,  composition. 

II.  Classes-  of  language  studies  on  the  ba- 
sis OF  THE  unit  dealt  WITH. 

Class  A.     Dealing  unth  Discourse. 

1.  Composition  and  Rhetoric. 

2.  Reading. 

3.  Literature. 

Class  B.     Dealing  with   the  Sentence. 
I.  Grammar. 

Class  C.     Dealing  zmth  the  Word. 

1.  Orthography. 

2.  Orthoepy. 

3.  Word  Analysis. 


Chapter  II 

THE   SENTENCE   AS   A   WHOLE 

7.  The  Sentence  Defined.  If  a  person  meets 
you  on  the  street  and  says,  ''  The  tall  green  tree," 
your  mind  is  not  satisfied ;  you  have  no  complete  con- 
ception. You  have  an  idea,  but  your  mind  naturally 
thinks,  "Well,  what  abovJ  'The  tall  green  tree'  f" 
Your  mind  is  satisfied  when  the  person  says,  '"  The 
tall  green  tree  was  blown  dozun  by  the  storm." 

This  last  group  of  words  we  call  a  sentence  be- 
cause it  expresses  a  thought;  the  first  group  of 
words  is  not  a  sentence  because  it  does  not  express 
a  thought. 

A  sentence  is  a  group  of  words  which  ex- 
presses a  thought;  as,  A  soldier  must  be  brave. 

Exercise  i 

Tell  which  of  the  follozving  groups  of  words  are 
sentences  and  zvhich  are  not.  Change  the  groups 
of  words  zvhich  are  not  sentences  into  sentences  by 
adding  words  to  them: 

1.  The  child  in  the  window. 

2.  The  picture  hanging  on  the  wall. 

3.  The  sun  is  hot. 

4.  The  sun  shining  in  at  the  window. 

5.  The  girl  who  tries  to  paint. 

[9] 


10  An  English  Grammar 

6.  The  streets  are  icy. 

7.  The  large  star  shining  in  tlie  west. 

8.  The  large  star. 

9.  The  large  star  shining  in  the  west  is  Venus. 
10.  The  large  -chair  occupied  by  my  father. 

Write  five  sentences  about  objects  which  you 
can  see  in  the  room.  Write  Uve  groups  of  zuords 
which  are  not  sentences.  Change  these  into  sen- 
tences by  adding  words  to  them.  Write  statements 
showing  hozv  the  first  groups  differ  from  your  sen- 
tences. 

8.  The  Thought  and  the  Sentence.  The  defi- 
nition of  the  sentence  shows  us  that  it  is  only  an 
instrument  to  express  the  thought.  The  thought 
is  the  important  thing;  the  sentence  exists  for  it. 
If  it  were  not  for  the  thought,  we  should  never  need 
a  sentence.  This  must  be  true  because  every  in- 
strument depends  upon  or  is  determined  by  the  work 
which  it  is  to  do. 

Take  the  garden  hoe,  for  example.  It  is  an  in- 
strument. It  is  made  to  suit  the  work  which  it  is  to 
do.  Every  part  and  attribute  of  it  depends  upon 
the  work  w4iich  it  is  to  perform.  Any  question  we 
may  ask  about  it  must  be  answered  by  the  nature 
of  the  work  which  it  is  to  do.  Why  is  the  handle 
five  feet  in  length  instead  of  two?  If  the  handle 
were  only  two  feet  long,  one  would  have  to  stoop  too 
much  in  using  it.  Why  is  the  blade  made  of  metal 
instead  of  wood?     It  must  stand  hard  knocks  to 


The  Sentence  as  a  Whole  -1^1 

break  the  clods  and  stir  the  soil.  Why  is  the  blade 
sharp  ?  It  must  cut  weeds.  We  see  that  everythins^ 
about  this  instrument  is  adapted  to  the  work  which 
it  is  to  do. 

In  the  same  way,  the  sentence  is  adapted  to  the 
expression  of  the  thought.  A  person  could  not  un- 
derstand the  garden  hoe  unless  he  knew  about  the 
garden  and  plants,  how  they  grow,  and  that  they 
must  be  cultivated.  Nor  can  a  person  understand 
the  sentence — the  instrument  for  expressing  the 
thought — until  he  understands  something  about  the 
thought. 

9.  The  Thought  Defined.  If  we  think  of 
that  which  the  word,  roses,  expresses,  we  have  an 
idea.  That  which  the  expression,  red  roses  or  large 
red  roses,  expresses  is  still  an  idea,  though  it  is  more 
complex  than  the  idea,  roses.  The  group  of  words, 
large  red  roses  groiving  by  the  windozv,  expresses 
only  one  idea,  though  it  is  much  more  complex  than 
any  of  the  other  ideas  just  mentioned. 

Any  one  of  these  ideas  is  a  complete  mental-  aef, 
but  it  is  not  a  thought.  If  we  think  of  that 
which  the  words,  roses  fragrant,  or  roses  growing, 
express,  we  still  have  only  ideas.  In  this  case  we 
have  two  ideas,  that  expressed  by  the  word, 
roses,  and  that  expressed  by  the  word,  fragrant,  or 
(hat  expressed  1)y  the  word,  roses,  and  that  ex- 
pressed by  the  word,  grozving.  We  do  not  know 
whether  the  ideas,  fragrant  and  grozving,  belong  to 


12  All  English  Grammar 

the  idea,  roses,  or  not.  Other  things  are  fragrant 
and  other  things  perform  the  act  of  groiving. 

The  expression,  roses  growing,  does  not  express 
a  thought,  then,  but  only  two  ideas.  In  order  to 
make  a  thought  out  of  these  two  ideas  the  mind 
must  assert  a  relation  between  them.  It  must 
assert  that  the  idea,  groiving,  belongs  to  the  idea, 
roses,  or  else  it  must  assert  that  the  idea,  growing, 
does  not  belong  to  the  idea,  roses.  If  we  express 
this  first  assertion  by  means  of  words,  we  must  have 
one  more  word  than  we  have  yet  used ;  as,  Roses  are 
growing.  If  we  express  the  second  assertion,  we 
must  have  two  more  words :  as,  Roses  are  not  grow- 
ing. 

This  shows  us  how  the  mind  thinks  a  thought 
and  what  is  necessary  to  the  thought.  If  the  mind 
wishes  to  think  a  thought,  it  begins  with  some  idea 
about  which  it  can  assert  another  idea ;  as  the  idea, 
stars.  Then  it  thinks  some  attribute  or  group  of 
attributes;  as  the  idea,  twinkling.  This  does  not 
form  a  thought.  To  form  a  thought  the  mind 
must  in  the  third  place  assert  a  relation  between 
the  idea,  stars,  and  the  idea,  twinkling.  Let  us  say 
that,  in  this  case,  it  asserts  the  relation,  that  the 
idea,  tzvinkling,  belongs  to  the  idea  stars.  This 
gives  it  the  thought.  Stars  are  twinkling. 

The  mind  performs  all  these  activities  so  quickly 
that  we  do  not  realize  that  it  has  taken  these  three 
steps;  but,  when  we  analyze  the  thought  carefully, 
we  see  that  the  mind  must  perform  these  three  acts 


The  Sentence  as  a  Whole  13 

or  take  these  three  steps  every  time  it  thinks  a 
thought.  No  thought  can  be  formed  by  the  mind 
with  fewer  than  these  three  elements: 

1.  An  idea  about  which  the  mind  asserts  an- 
other idea. 

2.  An  idea  which  the  mind  asserts  concerning 
the  first  idea. 

3.  The  relation  between  the  two  ideas. 
What,  then,  is  a  thought  or  judgment?     A 

thought  is  a  mental  act  in  which  the  mind  asserts 
a  relation  between  ideas;  as,  Snoiv  is  zvhite.  The 
thought  is  the  mental  act,    Snozv  is  white. 

What  is  an  idea?  An  idea  is  a  mental  act 
which  may  form  an  element  or  part  of  a  thought, 
such  as  is  expressed  in  the  sentence.  Gold  is  valua- 
ble. The  idea  is  the  mental  act,  gold  or  valuable 
or  is. 

Exercise  2 

Think  of  eight  or  ten  things  in  your  school  room; 
such  as,  pictures,  flowers,  and  maps.  Begin  with 
these  ideas;  think  other  ideas  which  your  mind  can 
assert  about  these  ideas;  make  the  assertions,  thus 
forming  thoughts. 

Shozv  hozu  the  mind  has  constructed  the  thoughts 
expressed  by  the  follozuing  sentences  by  pointing  out 
the  three  steps  in  the  thoughts: 

1.  Flowers  arc  blooming. 

2.  Grass  is  growing. 

3.  Birds  are  singing. 

4.  Streams  are  flowing.  lij 


14 


An  English  Granunar 


5.  Coal  is  black. 

6.  Ice  is  cold. 

7.  Rain  is  falling. 

8.  Sugar  is  sweet. 

9.  Apples  are  ripe. 
10.  Pinks  are  fragrant. 

10.  The  Thought  and  the  Sentence  Com- 
pared. The  differences  between  the  thought  and 
the  sentence  brought  out  in  the  last  two  sections 
are  very  important.  They  may  be  summed  up  as 
follows : 


The  Thought. 

1.  The  thought  is  a  mental 

act. 

2.  The  thought  is  a  group  of 

related  ideas. 

3.  The  thought  is  the  end. 


4.  The  thought  is  subjective, 
inside,  in  the  mind. 


5.  The  thought  cannot  be 
known  through  the 
senses.  We  cannot  see 
it  or  hear  it  or  touch  it. 


The  Sentence. 

1.  The    sentence    is   the    ex- 

pression of  a  mental  act. 

2.  The   sentence   is  a  group 

of  related  words. 

3.  The  sentence  is  the  means 

or  instrument,  not  the 
end. 

4.  The  sentence  is  objective, 

outside,  on  the  board  or 
in  the  book,  or  in  the  air 
if  spoken. 

5.  The      sentence      can      be 

known  through  the 
senses.  We  can  see  it, 
hear  it  and  touch  it. 


II.  The  Elements  of  the  Thought.  From 
what  we  have  aheady  learned  about  the  thought, 
we  can  see  that  every  thought  must  contain  three 
elements.    In  the  thought,  The  ants  are  busy,  the 


The  Sentence  as  a  Whole  15 

mind  begins  with  the  idea,  The  anfs.  That  is  the 
idea  about  which  it  thinks  or  asserts  another  idea. 
Then  the  mind  thinks,  in  connection  with  it,  the 
idea,  busy.  It  holds  the  two  up  together,  as  it  were, 
for  comparison.  Third,  the  mind  sees  the  agree- 
ment betw^een  these  ideas  and  asserts  that  the 
idea,  busy,  belongs  to  the  idea,  TJie  ants.  This  third 
element  is  the  relation  between  the  first  idea, 
The  ants,  and  the  second  idea,  busy. 

In  the  thought.  Flowers  bloom,  we  have  these 
same  elements.  The  first  idea  is  the  idea.  Flowers. 
The  second  idea,  which  the  mind  holds  up  with  this 
idea  for  comparison,  is  the  idea,  bloom.  The  third 
idea  or  element  is  that  this  idea,  bloom,  belongs  to 
or  this  act  is  performed  by  the  idea.  Flowers.  The 
mind  cannot  think  a  thought  with  fewer  than  these 
three  elements,  and  no  thought  can  contain  more 
than  these  three  elements. 

Exercise  3 

In  the  thoughts  expressed  by  the  following  sen- 
tences, point  out  the  three  elements: 

1.  Elephants  are  powerful. 

2.  Walking  is  pleasant. 

3.  Some  books  are  interesting. 

4.  Men  think. 

5.  Rain  falls. 

12.  The    Elements    of    the    Thought.      The 

first  idea  in  the  thought,  the  idea  with  which  the 
mind  begins,  may  be  called  the  thought  subject. 


16  An  English  Grammar 

The  second  idea  in  the  thought,  the  idea  which 
the  mind  compares  with  the  first  idea,  may  be 
called  the  thought  predicate.  The  third  idea  in 
the  thought,  the  relation  between  the  first  and  the 
second  ideas,  may  be  called  the  thought  relation. 

The  thought  subject  is  the  idea  about  which 
the  mind  asserts  another  idea.  In  the  thought. 
The  fog  is  rising,  the  thought  subject  is  the  idea, 
The  fog. 

The  thought  predicate  is  the  idea  which  the 
mind  asserts  of  the  thought  subject.  In  the 
thought,  The  fog  is  rising,  the  thought  predicate  is 
the  idea,  rising. 

The  thought  relation  is  the  relation  which  the 
mind  asserts  between  the  thought  subject  and  the 
thought  predicate.  In  the  thought.  The  fog  is  ris- 
ing, the  thought  relation  is  that  the  idea,  rising,  or 
the  thought  predicate,  belongs  to  the  idea.  The  fog, 
or  the  thought  subject.  This  thought  relation  is 
expressed  by  the  word,  is. 

The  mind  does  not  always  assert  that  the 
thought  predicate  belongs  to  the  thought  subject. 
It  may  assert  that  the  thought  predicate  does  not 
belong  to  the  thought  subject ;  as,  This  paper  is  not 
clean.  In  this  thought,  the  mind  asserts  that  the 
thought  predicate,  the  idea,  clean,  does  not  belong 
to  the  thought  subject,  the  idea,  This  paper. 

This  fact  gives  us  two  kinds  of  thought  rela- 
tions ;  one  in  which  the  mind  asserts  that  the  thought 
predicate  belongs  to  the  thought  subject  and  one  in 


The  Sentence  as  a  Whole  IT 

which  the  mind  asserts  that  the  thought  predicate 
does  not  belong  to  the  thought  subject.  We  call  the 
first  a  relation  of  agreement.  We  call  the  second 
a  relation  of  disagreement. 

Exercise  4 

In  the  thoughts  expressed  by  the  following  sen- 
tences, tell  wJiicJi  lias  a  relation  of  agreement  and 
which  a  relation  of  disagreement: 

1.  Iron  is  heavy. 

2.  My  pencil  is  not  long. 

3.  My  pen  is  not  good. 

4.  Jonathan  was  faithful  to  David. 

5.  The  lesson  was  not  difficult. 

Write  five  sentences  expressing  relations  of 
agreement  and  h-ve  zvJiich  express  relations  of  dis- 
agreement. 

The  mind  may  see  that  the  thought  predicate  is 
a  part  or  an  attribute  of  the  thought  subject;  as, 
The  man  is  charitable.  The  sun  shines.  Or  it  may 
see  that  the  thought  subject  is  an  individual  or  a 
class  of  individuals,  and  that  the  thought  predicate 
is  an  individual  or  a  class  of  individuals,  and  that 
the  attributes  of  the  thought  predicate  belong  to 
the  thought  subject;  as,  Monroe  was  a  statesman. 
Violets  are  plants.  These  men  arc  natives.  The  Mis- 
sissippi is  the  father  of  zvaters.  When  the  mind  as- 
serts any  of  these  relations  between  the  thought 
subject  and  the  thought  predicate,  we  call  it  a 
relation  of  agreement. 


18  An  English  Graimnar 

But  the  mind  may  assert  just  the  opposite  of 
this  relation.  It  may  assert  that  the  thought  pred- 
icate does  not  belong  to  the  thought  subject  or  that 
the  attributes  of  the  thought  predicate  do  not  be- 
long to  the  thought  subject;  as,  The  man  is  not 
charitable.  The  sun  does  not  shine.  Monroe  was 
not  a  statesman.  Violets  are  not  minerals.  These 
men  are  not  natives.  The  Missouri  is  not  the  father 
of  zvaters. 

When  the  mind  asserts  any  of  these  relations 
between  the  thought  subject  and  the  thought  pred- 
icate we  call  it  a  relation  of  disagreement. 

13.  The  Thought  Analyzed.  We  may  then 
analyze  a  thought  or  judgment  as  follows:  Web- 
ster, the  statesman,  zvas  a  great  lawyer.  The 
thought  is  the  mental  act,  Webster,  the  states- 
man, zvas  a  great  lazvyer,  because  it  is  a  mental  act 
in  which  the  mind  asserts  a  relation  between  ideas. 
The  thought  subject  is  the  idea,  Webster,  the 
statesman,  because  it  is  an  idea  about  which  the 
mind  asserts  another  idea.  The  thought  predicate 
is  the  idea,  a  great  lawyer,  because  it  is  the  idea 
which  the  mind  asserts  of  the  thought  subject.  The 
thought  relation  is  one  of  agreement  because  the 
attributes  of  the  thought  predicate  belong  to  the 
thought  subject. 

Exercise  5 

Analyze  the  thoughts  expressed  by  the  follozving 
sentences: 


The  Sentence  as  a  Whole  19 

1.  The  climate  of  California  is  mild. 

2.  The  snow  was  melting  from  the  mountains. 

3.  The  flowers  were  springing  up  everywhere. 

4.  Chaucer  was  the  father  of  English  poetry. 

5.  Tobacco  is  harvested  in  the  latter  part  of  August. 

6.  We  camped  on  Moosehead  lake. 

7.  The  boys  rowed  the  boat  down  the  stream. 

8.  The  cave  was  very  damp. 

14.  The  Parts  of  the  Sentence.  We  have 
now  seen  that  the  thought  ahvays  consists  of  three 
elements ;  that  the  sentence  is  the  instrument  for 
expressing-  the  thought ;  that  the  instrument  is  al- 
ways adapted  to  the  work  which  it  is  to  do;  and 
that  the  sentence  is,  therefore,  adapted  to  the 
thought.  The  sentence  must  then  have  three  parts 
corresponding  to  or  expressing  the  three  elements 
of  the  thought.  If  you  will  refer  to  Section  10,  you 
will  see  that  this  is  the  only  way  in  which  the  sen- 
tence and  the  thought  are  alike.  The  thought  has 
three  elements;  the  sentence  has  three  parts. 
This  is  the  only  way  they  can  be  alike. 

That  part  of  the  sentence  which  corresponds  to 
or  expresses  the  thought  subject  we  call  the  sub- 
ject of  the  sentence.  That  part  of  the  sentence 
which  corresponds  to  or  expresses  the  thought  pred- 
icate we  call  the  predicate  of  the  sentence.  That 
part  of  the  sentence  which  corresponds  to  or  ex- 
presses the  thought  relation,  we  call  the  copula 
of  the  sentence. 

In  the  sentence,  Dark  clouds  were  overhead,  the 


20  An  English  Grammar 


&' 


subject  of  the  sentence  is  the  words,  Da"k  clouds, 
because  they  express  the  thought  subject.  The 
predicate  of  the  sentence  is  the  word,  overhead,  be- 
cause it  expresses  the  thought  predicate.  The  cop- 
ula of  the  sentence  is  the  word,  zuere,  because  it  ex- 
presses the  thought  relation. 

15.  The  Parts  of  the  Sentence  Defined.    We 

may  then  form  tlie  following  definitions: 

1.  The  subject  of  the  sentence  is  the  word  or 
group  of  words  which  expresses  the  thought  sub- 
ject; as,  in  the  sentence,  Milk  is  zvhite,  the  subject 
is  the  word.  Milk. 

2.  The  predicate  is  the  word  or  group  of 
words  which  expresses  the  thought  predicate; 
as,  in  the  sentence,  Storms  arc  frightful,  the  predi- 
cate is  the  word,  fright  fid. 

3.  The  copula  is  the  word  or  group  of  words 
which  expresses  the  thought  relation;  as,  in  the 
sentence,  The  righteous  man  is  exalted,  the  copula 
is  the  word,  is. 

16.  Why  Every  Sentence  in  the  English  Lan- 
guage Must  Have  These  Three  Parts.  Every 
person  who  wishes  to  master  the  English  sentence 
should  know,  first  of  all,  the  following  facts : 

I.  The  verb,  he,  in  all  its  forms,  he,  am,  is,  are, 
art,  was,  wast,  zvere,  wert,  and  heen,  is  the  only 
pure  verb  in  the  English  language. 

Note:  Section  16  may  simply  be  carefully  read  at  first.  Tn  con- 
nection nith  the  study  of  the  pure  verb,  return  to  it  for  more  care- 
ful consideration. 


The  Sentence  as  a  Whole  21 

2.  We  mean  b}'  saying  it  is  the  only  .pure  verb 
that  it  is  the  only  verb  in  the  English  language 
which  always  expresses  the  thought  relation  and 
never  expresses  anything  else.  The  verb,  he,  with 
its  modifiers  and  auxiliaries,  if  it  has  any,  is  always 
the  copula  of  the  sentence,  and  never  anything  else. 
It  and  its  modifiers  are  never  a  part  of  the  predicate 
of  the  sentence.  At  one  time  in  the  history  of  the 
language,  the  verb,  be,  had  the  power  to  express  an 
attribute.  It  then  meant  exists.  The  sentence,  God 
is,  at  the  time  at  which  it  was  written,  meant,  God 
exists.  We  do  not  so  use  this  verb  now.  It  has  lost 
all  power  to  express  an  attribute,  and  has  now  come 
to  be  used  as  a  mere  connective  or  copula  between 
the  subject  and  the  predicate.  Whenever  we  find 
any  form  of  this  verb  in  the  sentence,  then,  we  may 
be  sure  that  it,  with  its  auxiliaries  and  modifiers, 
if  it  has  any,  is  the  copula  of  the  sentence. 

3.  Sometimes  other  verbs,  such  as,  become, 
grow,  get,  turn,  remain,  continue,  stay,  seem,  ap- 
pear, look,  sound,  smell,  feel,  stand,  sit,  go,  and 
move,  are  used  in  the  sentence  with  the  force  of 
a  pure  verb;  as,  TJie  field  looks  green.  The  child 
feels  sick. 

In  such  cases  these  verbs  are  the  copulas  of  the 
sentences.  But  these  verbs  are  not  always  used  in 
this  way. 

4.  Every  other  verb  in  the  English  language 
may  be  expanded  into  some  form  of  the  verb,  be, 
and  another  word,  usually  the   present   participle, 


22  An  English  Grammar 

which  expresses  the  attribute  or  thought  predicate 
or  the  principal  part  of  the  thought  predicate;  as, 

1.  They  beg  is  equal  to  They  are  beggars  or 
They  are  begging. 

2.  They  may  zvrite  is  equal  to  They  may  be 
zvriting . 

J.  He  must  go  is  equal  to  He  must  be  going. 

4.  She  does  study  is  equal  to  She  does  be  study- 
ing. 

5.  We  do  insist  is  equal  to  We  do  be  insisting. 

6.  The  boy  had  gone  is  equal  to  The  boy  had 
been  going. 

7.  They  have  studied  is  equal  to  They  have  been 
studying. 

8.  His  brother  zvill  have  departed  is  equal  to  His 
brother  will  have  been  departing. 

In  the  above  sentences  the  part  in  black  faced 
type  in  each  case  is  the  copula.  It  is  clear,  there- 
fore, that  every  sentence  in  the  English  language 
not  only  may  have  three  parts,  but  every  sentence 
must  have,  either  actually  in  it  or  implied  in  it,  these 
three  parts :  subject,  predicate,  and  copula. 

To  say  that  a  sentence  has  three  parts,  however, 
is  not  the  same  as  to  say  it  has  three  words  in  it. 
Sometimes,  as  we  have  just  seen,  one  word  per- 
forms two  offices  in  the  sentence.  In  the  sentence, 
They  beg,  the  word,  beg,  expresses  the  thought  re- 
lation and  the  thought  predicate.  Thus  it  performs 
two  offices  in  the  sentence,  or  stands  for  two  parts 
of  the  sentence.     These  two  parts  of  the  sentence 


The  Sentence  as  a  Whole  ^3 

may  be  shown  by  expanding  the  word,  beg,  into  its 
equivalent  expression,  are  beggars,  or  are  begging. 
Now  the  sentence  has  three  visible  or  audible  parts, 
They  are  begging.  A  sentence  may  have  only  one 
visible  or  audible  part;  as,  March.  Yet  this  sen- 
tence contains  three  parts,  for  there  is  a  subject  un- 
derstood, the  w^ord,  you.  The  sentence  means,  You 
march.  Then  the  word,  march,  performs  two  of- 
fices. It  expresses  the  thought  relation  and  the 
thought  predicate  and  may  be  expanded  into  the 
expression,  be  marching.  The  sentence,  March, 
then  really  means.  You  be  marching,  and  in  this  we 
have  three  visible  or  audible  parts.  No  matter  how 
many  or  how  few  words  a  sentence  may  contain,  it 
is  ahvays  made  up  of  three  parts:  subject,  predi- 
cate and  copula. 

Exercise  6 

Analyze  the  thoughts  expressed  by  the  following 
sentences,  by  giving  the  thought  subject,  the  thought 
predicate,  and  the  thought  relation  of  each,  with 
the  reason  in  each  case.  Then  analyze  the  sen- 
fences  by  giving  the  subject,  predicate,  and  copula 
of  each,  zvifh  a  reason  in  each  case.  Let  your  lan- 
guage in  tJie  analysis  show  clearly  the  distinction 
betzveen  the  sentence  and  the  thought. 

To  make  this  point  clearer,  let  us  analyze  these 
sentences: 

Model  for  the  Analysis  of  the  Thought. 

/.  The  King  was  silent. 

The     thought     is    the    mental     act,     The    King    7i'as 


24 


An  English  Grammar 


silent,  because  it  is  a  mental  act  in  which  the  mind 
asserts  a  relation  between  ideas.  The  thought  subject  is 
the  idea,  The  King,  because  it  is  the  idea  about  which  the 
mind  asserts  another  idea.  The  thought  predicate  is  the 
idea,  silent,  because  it  is  the  idea  which  the  mind  asserts  of 
the  thought  subject.  The  thought  relation  is  one  of 
agreement  because  the  thought  predicate  belongs  to  the 
thought  subject. 

Model  for  the  Analysis  of  the  Sentence. 

//.   The  King  was  silent. 

The  sentence  is  the  group  of  words.  The  King 
was  silent,  because  it  is  a  group  of  words  which 
expresses  a  thought.  The  subject  of  the  sentence  is  the 
words,  The  King,  because  they  express  the  thought  sub- 
ject. The  predicate  is  the  word,  silent,  because  it  expresses 
the  thought  predicate.  The  copula  is  the  word,  was,  be- 
cause it  expresses  the  thought  relation. 

///.  Colwiibns  discovered  America. 

The  sentence  is  the  group  of  words,  Columbus  discov- 
ered America,  because  it  is  a  group  of  words  which  expresses 
a  thought.  The  subject  of  the  sentence  is  the  word,  Colum- 
bus, because  it  expresses  the  thought  subject.  The  predicate 
is  the  words,  discovered  America,  because  they  express  the 
thought  predicate.  The  copula  is  implied  in  the  word,  dis- 
covered. If  it  were  expanded,  it  would  be  was  discovering. 
The  copula  is  then  the  word,  zvas,  because  it  expresses  the 
thought  relation. 

Sentences  To  Be  Analyzed. 

1.  The  Puritans  were  strict. 

2.  Coal  is  a  mineral. 

3.  My  uncle's  farm  is  fertile. 


The  Sentence  as  a  Whole  25 

4.  We  enjoyed  a  moonlight  sail. 

5.  Coasting  is  dangerous. 

6.  The  natives  enjoy  climbing  mountains. 

7.  A  prairie  fire  is  an  impressive  sight. 

8.  The  village  street  leads  past  the  church. 

9.  The  Van  Tassel  homestead  was  not  large. 

10.  A  New  England  kitchen  has  a  thrifty  appearance. 

Review 

Read  each  sentence  in  the  following  paragraph 
and  tJiink  the  thougJit  expressed  by  it.  Give  the 
three  elements  of  the  thought.  Give  the  three  parts 
of  the  sentence. 

This  was  to  be  our  visiting  day.  The  next  that  came 
was  Mr.  Burchell,  who  had  been  at  the  fair.  He  brought 
my  little  ones  a  pennyworth  of  gingerbread  each,  which 
my  wife  undertook  to  keep  for  them,  and  give  them  by 
letters  at  a  time.  He  brought  my  daughters  also  a  couple 
of  boxes,  in  which  they  might  keep  wafers,  snuff,  patches, 
or  even  money  when  they  got  it.  My  wife  was  unusually 
fond  of  a  weasel-skin  purse  as  being  the  most  lucky; 
but  this  by  the  by. 

— Goldsmith. 


Tlic  Second  Section 
Chapter  III 

CLASSES    OF    SENTENCES 

17.  On  the  Basis  of  their  Meaning  or  Chief 
Purpose.  Sentences  are  used  to  awaken  thoughts 
in  tlie  mind.  Whenever „you  use  a  sentence,  yoti 
wish  to  produce  some  effect  upon  another  mind. 

Examine  the  following  sentences  to  see  if  you 
can  state  the  chief  purpose  of  each.  What  would 
yoit  expect  to  accomplish  zvith  them? 

1.  London  is  the  largest  city  in  the  world. 

2.  Is  London  the  largest  city  in  the  world? 

3.  Find  the  population  of  London  for  your  next  lesson. 

4.  What  a  large  city  London  is ! 

1.  The  chief  purpose  of  the  first  sentence  is  to 
give  information  to  the  mind. 

2.  The  chief  purpose  of  the  second  sentence 
is  to  obtain  information  from  the  mind. 

3.  The  chief  purpose  of  the  third  sentence  is 
to  have  the  mind  act,  to  cause  it  to  do  something. 

4.  The  chief  purpose  of  the  fourth  sentence 
is  to  awaken  emotion.  It  awakens  the  emotion 
of  surprise  at  the  size  of  the  city  of  London. 

This  difference  in  the  chief  purpose  of  sen- 
tences gives  us  four  classes  on  that  basis.  We 
call  the  first  a  Declarative  sentence;  the  second, 

[263 


Classes  of  Sentences  27 

an  Interrogative  sentence;  the  third,  an  Impera- 
tive sentence;  and  the  fourth,  an  Exclamatory 
sentence. 

1 8.  These  Classes  Defined.  The  four  classes 
of  sentences  may  be  defined  as  follows : 

1.  A  Declarative  sentence  is  a  sentence  whose 
chief  purpose  is  to  give  information;  as,  The  first 
mail  zvas  Adam. 

2.  An  Interrogative  *  sentence  is  a  sentence 
whose  chief  purpose  is  to  obtain  information;  as, 
WJw  zi'as  the  first  woman? 

3.  An  Imperative  sentence  is  a  sentence  whose 
chief  purpose  is  to  move  the  will;  as,  Read  the  first 
stanrja  of  fJie  poem. 

4.  An  Exclamatory  sentence  is  a  sentence 
whose  chief  purpose  is  to  awaken  emotion;  as, 
Alas!  That  zve  should  fail! 

Exercise  7 

Classify  the  follozving  sentences  on  the  basis  of 
tlieir  chief  purpose  and  give  your  reasons: 

1.  Constant  dropping  wears  away  stones. 

2.  Tom  rowed  with  untired  vigor,  and  with  a  different 
speed  from  poor  ^Maggie's.  — Eliot. 

3.  Mercy,  sir,  how  the  folks  will  talk  of  it ! 

4.  Men's  evil  manners  live  in  brass,  their  virtues  we 
write  in  water. 

5.  Come,  Rollo,  let  us  take  a  walk. 

6.  Why  was  the  French  Revolution  so  bloody  and  de- 
structive ? 


28  An  English  Graimnar 

7.  Be  clean,   for  the  strength  of  the  hunter  is  known 
by  the  gloss  of  his  hide.  — Kipling. 

8.  Honey  from  out  the  quarreled  hive  I'll  bring. 

9.  Lead  us  to  some  far-off  sunny  isle. 

10.  Where  are  you  going,  my  pretty  maid? 

11.  "  The  Dwarf  asked,  "  Who  is  my  master?  " 

12.  Toussaint  wrote  to  Napoleon,  "  Sire,  I  am  a  French 
citizen  ;   have  I  ever  broken  a  law  ?  " 

13.  Tell  me  what  you  like  and  I  will  tell  you  what  you 
are.  — Ruskin. 

14.  "  Think  you,  Abel,"  said  Paul  at  last,  "  that  the 
storm  drove  thither  ?  " 

15.  The  way  was  long,  the  wind  was  cold 

The  minstrel  was  infirm  and  old.  — Scott. 

Write  five  declarative  sentences  about  facts  in 
history.  Write  five  interrogative  sentences  asking 
for  information  in  geography.  Write  five  impera- 
tive sentences  which  may  he  used  by  the  teacher. 
Write  "five  exclamatory  sentences  which  may  be 
used  in  climbing  mountains,  at  a  circus,  at  a  base 
ball  game. 

Exercise  8 

19.  Arrangement  of  the  Sentence.  Point  out 
the  subject,  predicate,  and  copula  in  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing sentences: 

1.  I  am  a  poor  man. 

2.  Who  will  help  me? 

3.  Every  man's  task  is  his  life  preserver. 

4.  The  devil  can  catch  a  lazy  man  with  a  bare  hook. 

5.  When  did  the  leopard  ever  change  his  spots? 

6.  Can  one  stop  the  current  of  a  river? 


Classes  of  Sentences  29 

7.  How  beautiful  is  white-winged  peace ! 

8.  How  beautiful  upon  the  mountains  are  the  feet  of 
him  that  bringeth  glad  tidings ! 

9.  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians. 

10.  Charity  begins  at  home. 

11.  Am  I  required  to  go? 

20.  Arrangement  Defined.  In  which  kind 
of  sentence  in  the  preceding  list  does  the  subject 
usually  come  first,  the  copula  next,  and  the  predi- 
cate last?  Is  this  always  true?  Notice  sentence  9. 
In  what  kind  of  sentence  does  the  copula  sometimes 
come  first?  Notice  sentence  11.  Does  the  predi- 
cate of  the  sentence  ever  come  first?  Notice  sen- 
tence 8.  Sum  up  your  observations  on  the  sen- 
tences. 

The  arrangement  of  the  sentence  is  the  order 
in  which  the  parts  occur  in  it;  as.  The  Romans 
conquered  the  zvorld.  Is  the  room  zvarm?  Whose 
hook  have  yon? 

21.  Kinds  of  Arrangements.  In  the  sen- 
tence, Poe  was  the  father  of  the  short  story,  what 
is  the  order  of  the  subject,  predicate,  and  copula? 
We  call  this  natural  or  regular  arrangement.  In 
what  order  are  the  subject,  predicate,  and  copula 
when  a  sentence  is  in  its  natural  order? 

In  tlie  sentence,  Great  was  the  fall  of  Rome,  what 
is  the  order  of  the  subject,  predicate,  and  copula-* 
Does  the  copula  ever  come  first  in  the  sentence? 
Illustrate.    We  call  this  arrangement  of  the  sen- 


30  An  English  Grammar 

tence  inverted  arrangement.  In  what  order  are 
the  subject,  predicate,  and  copula  when  a  sentence 
is  inverted  arrangement? 

Natural  or  regular  arrangement  is  that  ar- 
rangement in  which  the  subject  comes  first  in  the 
sentence,  the  copula  next,  and  the  predicate  last; 
as,  David  zvas  the  cJiainpion  of  Israel. 

Inverted  arrangement  is  any  arrangement  of 
the  parts  of  a  sentence  other  than  the  natural;  as, 
Holy  art  thou,  oh,  Lord  of  Hosts! 

Arrange  the  sentenees  in  the  follozving  extract 
from  "Evangeline"  in  their  natnral  order: 

Fair  was  she  to  behold,  that  maiden  of  seventeen  summers, 
Black  were  her  eyes  as  the  berry  that  grows  on  the  thorn 

by  the  wayside. 
Black,    yet   how    softly   they    gleamed   beneath    the   brown 

shade  of  her  tresses ! 
Sweet  was  her  breath  as  the  breath  of  kine  that  feed  in  the 

meadow. 
When  in  the  harvest  heat  she  bore  to  the  reapers  at  noontide 
Flagons   of   home-brewed   ale,   ah !    fair   in   sooth   was   the 

maiden. 
Fairer  was  she  when,  on  Sunday  morn,  while  the  bell  from 

its  turret 
Sprinkled  with  holy  sounds  the  air,  as  the  priest  with  his 

hyssop 
Sprinkles   the  congregation,   and   scatters  blessings  among 

them. 
But  a  celestial  brightness,  a  more  ethereal  beauty, 
Shone    on   her    face    and   encircled   her    form,    when    after 

confession. 


Classes  of  Sentences  31 

Homeward    serenely    she    walked    with    God's    benediction 

upon  her. 
When  she  had  passed,  it  seemed  like  the  ceasing  of  exquisite 

music.  — Longfellozi'. 

Exercise  g 

Show  zvliat  the  arrangement  of  each  of  the  fol- 
loiving  sentences  is,  and  notice  the  punctuation: 

1.  Thou  shalt  not  steal. 

2.  Who  killed  Cock  Robin? 

3.  Wait  until  you  can  see  the  whites  of  their  eyes. 

4.  O  what  a  rapturous  cry ! 

5.  Alas !  that  thou  shouldst  die ! 

6.  Oh,  where  shall  rest  be  found! 

7.  Whom  were  you  seeking? 

8.  Is  the  world  round? 

9.  In  the  city,  Wilfred  was  discontented. 

10.  The  Puritan  prostrated  himself  in  the  dust  before  his 
Maker,  but  he  set  his  foot  on  the  neck  of  his  king. 

— Macaulay. 

22.  Punctuation  and  Capitalization.  By  ex- 
amining- the  sentences  in  the  preceding  lists,  we 
may  note  tlic  following: 

The  first  word  of  every  sentence  begins  with 
a  capital  letter. 

The  Declarative  and  Imperative  sentences 
close  with  the  period  (.). 

The  Interrogative  sentence  closes  with  the  in- 
terrogation point  (?). 

The  Exclamatory  sentence  closes  with  the  ex- 
clamation point  ( !) . 

In  the  exclamatory  sentence,  wc  often  hr.ve  a 


32  An  English  Grammar 

word  which  expresses  emotion.  It  is  called  an 
interjection.  Point  out  the  interjections  in  the 
preceding  list  of  sentences.  Notice  the  punctuation 
marks  after  the  interjections. 

1.  When  the  interjection  and  the  remainder  of 
the  sentence  unite  closely  to  express  the  same 
emotion,  no  mark  of  punctuation  follows  the  in- 
terjection ;  as,  Oh  for  a  lodge  in  some  vast  wilder- 
ness! 

2.  When  the  interjection  and  the  remainder  of 
the  sentence  do  not  unite  very  closely  to  express 
the  same  emotion,  the  interjection  is  followed  by 
the  comma  (,) ;  as.  Oh,  how  happy  I  am! 

3.  When  the  interjection  expresses  an  emotion 
different  from  the  thought  expressed  by  the  re- 
mainder of  the  sentence,  the  interjection  should  be 
followed  by  an  exclamation  point  ( !) ;  as,  Alas! 
what  a  terrible  accident! 

Exercise  10 

Punctuate  and  capitali::c  the  following  sen- 
tences, and  give  your  reasons: 

1.  fie  on  him 

2.  the  natives  gathered  around  him 

3.  call  the  guard 

4.  oh  that  those  lips  had  language 

5.  is  the  young  man  safe 

6.  oh  for  a  kindly  touch  from  that  pure  flame 

7.  oh  what  a  fall  was  there  my  countrymen 

8.  the  spirit  is  willing  but  the  flesh  is  weak 

9.  alas  what  mortal  terror  we  are  in 


Classes  of  Sentences  33 

lo.  where  was  Columbus  born 

ii.  and  hark  how  clear  bold  Chanticleer 
warmed  with  the  new  wine  of  the  year 
tells  all  in  his  lusty  crowing  — Lowell. 

12.  give  me  of  your  bark  O  Birch-tree 

Review  and  Work  in  Composition 

TO    THE   FRINGED   GENTIAN 

Thou  blossom  bright  with  autumn  dew, 
And  colored  with  the  heaven's  own  blue, 
That  openest  when  the  quiet  light 
Succeeds  the  keen  and  frosty  night. 

Thou  comest  not  when  violets  lean 

O'er  wandering  brooks  and  springs  unseen, 

Or  columbines,  in  purple  dressed, 

Nod  o'er  the  ground-bird's  hidden  nest. 

Thou  waitest  late  and  com'st  alone, 
When  woods  are  bare  and  birds  are  flown, 
And  frosts  and  shortening  days  portend 
The  aged  year  is  near  his  end. 

Then  doth  thy  sweet  and  quiet  eye 
Look  through  its  fringes  to  the  sky, 
Blue — blue — as  if  that  sky  let  fall 
A  flower  from  its  cerulean  wall. 

I  would  that  tints,  when  I  shall  see 

The  hour  of  death  draw  near  to  me, 

Hope  blossoming  within  my  heart. 

May  look  to  heaven  as  I  depart.  — Bryant. 

Learn  all  you  can  about  the  fringed  gentian 
from  the  poem.     What  color  is  it?    When  does  it 


34  An  English  Grammar 

bloom f  Does  it  close  at  night  and  open  in  the 
morning f  Note  lines  three  and  four  of  the  first 
stanza.  With  zvhat  other  flozvers  does  the  author 
contrast  it?  How?  What  is  the  "ground-bird"? 
With  what  is  the  year  compared?  Explain  the 
fourth  stanza  in  your  ozvn  words.  What  is  a  "ceru- 
lean zvall"?  What  zvish  does  the  author  express 
in  the  last  stanza? 

Did  yon  ever  see  a  fringed  gentian?  Learn  all 
you  can  about  the  flozvcr  from  sources  other  than 
the  poem. 

Write  one-page  papers  on  one  or  tzvo  of  the  fol- 
lowing topics: 

1.  Why  is  the  fringed  gentian  so  highly  prized? 

2.  The  Gentian  and  its  Spring  rivals ;   a  comparison. 

3.  Glimpses  of  Spring  and  Antumn.  (Enlarge  some  of 
the  scenes  snggested  hy  the  poem.) 

4.  The  (ientian  and  the  Poet's  wish. 


Chapter  IV 

CLASSES   OF   SENTENCES 

23.  On  the  Basis  of  Number  and  Relation  of 
the  Thoughts  Expressed,  or  the  Form.  Exam- 
ine the  folloiving  sentences  carefully.  Tell  how  many 
I h oughts  each  expresses.  Gk'e  tlie  elements  of  each 
ill  ought.  Give  the  parts  of  each  sentence  or  clause. 
When  the  sentence  'expresses  more  than  one 
thought,  try  to  state  the  relation  between  the 
thoughts.  Is  one  tJi ought  a  part  of  the  other?  Is 
it  a  part  of  the  thought  subject,  or  the  thought 
predicate,  or  the  thought  relation  of  the  other;  or  is 
neither  thought  a  part  of  the  other? 

1.  Washington,  the  father  of  his  country,  was  our  first 
president. 

2.  Washington,  who  was  the  father  of  his  country,  was 
our  first  president. 

3.  \V'ashii>gton  was  the  father  of  his  country,  and  he 
was  our  first  president. 

We  notice  that  the  first  of  these  sentences  ex- 
presses  only   a    sing^le   thought    subject,    a    single 
thought  predicate,  and  a  single  thought  relation 
In  other  words,  it  expresses  only  one  thought. 
We  call  this  kind  of  sentence  a  simple  sentence. 

The    second    sentence    expresses    two    thought 
[35] 


36  An  English  Grammar 

subjects,  two  thought  predicates,  and  two  thought 
relations.  In  other  words  it  expresses  two 
thoughts,  l^he  first  thought  is  expressed  by  the 
words,  VVasJiington  was  our  first  president.  Give 
the  elements  of  this  thought  and  then  the  parts  of 
the  clause.  The  second  thought  is  expressed  by 
the  words,  IVJio  zvas  the  father  of  his  country. 
Give  the  elements  of  this  thought  and  then  the  parts 
of  the  clause.  We  notice,  however,  that  the  second 
thought  is  a  part  of  the  thought  subject  of  the  first 
thought.  Sometimes  the  second  thought  is  a  part 
of  the  thought  predicate  or  the  thought  relation  of 
the  first  thought.  When  a  thought  is  a  part  of 
one  of  the  elements  of  another  thought,  we  call  it  a 
subordinate  thought,  or  we  say  that  the  thoughts 
expressed  by  such  a  sentence  are  of  unequal  rank. 
The  first  thought  expressed  by  this  second  sentence 
we  call  a  principal  thought  because  it  does  not  de- 
pend upon  or  is  not  a  part  of  any  other  thought. 
We  call  this  kind  of  a  sentence  a  complex  sen- 
tence. 

The  third  sentence  in  the  list  also  expresses  two 
thoughts.  The  first  thought  is  expressed  by  the 
words,  Washington  was  the  father  of  his  country. 
Give  the  elements  of  this  thought  and  then  the  parts 
of  the  clause.  The  second  thought  is  expressed 
by  the  words,  he  zvas  our  first  president.  Give 
the  elements  of  this  thought  and  then  the  parts  of 
the  clause.  In  this  particular  it  is  like  the  second 
sentence  and   dififers   from  the   first  sentence.     It 


Classes  of  Sentences  '^7 

differs  from  the  second  sentence,  however,  in  that 
neither  one  of  these  thoughts  is  a  part  of  the  other. 
We  say  that  they  are  independent  thoughts  or 
thoughts  of  equal  rank  because  neither  one  is  de- 
pendent upon  or  forms  a  part  of  the  other.  We 
call  this  kind  of  a  sentence  a  compound  sentence. 

24.  Simple,  Complex  and  Compound  Sen- 
tences Defined.  From  what  we  have  said  in  the 
last  section,  we  may  form  the  following  definitions: 

1.  A  simple  sentence  is  a  sentence  which  ex- 
presses a  single  thought;  as.    Gold  ij^litfcrs. 

2.  A  Complex  sentence  is  a  sentence  which 
expresses  one  principal  thought  and  one  or  more 
subordinate  thoughts;  as,  Gold,  which  is  valua- 
ble, glitters  zvhen  held  in  the  sunlight. 

3.  A  Compound  sentence  is  a  sentence  which 
expresses  two  or  more  independent  thoughts  of 
equal  rank;  as,  Gold  glitters  in  the  sunlight  and 
it  is  valuable. 

25.  The  Clause  Defined.  We  may  also  see 
from  the  last  two  Sections  that  a  clause  is  very  much 
like  a  sentence.  It  expresses  a  thought  and  like 
the  sentence  it  has  a  subject,  predicate  and  copula. 
But  it  is  always  a  part  of  a  sentence. 

A  clause  is  a  group  of  words,  composed  of  a 
subject,  predicate  and  copula,  which  is  a  part  of 
a  sentence;  as,  The  Charter  Oak,  which  was 
blown  down  in  a  storm,  was  an  historic  landmark. 
This  sentence  contains  two  clauses.  The  first  clause 


38  An  Enf:;Iish  Graiinnar 

is  the  words,  The  Charter  Oak  zvas  an  historic  land- 
mark. The  second  clause  is  the  words,  which  zvas 
bloivn  dozvn  in  a  storm. 

Exercise  ii 

Take  your  dictionaries  and  find  tJie  literal  mean- 
ing of  the  zvords  simple,  complex  and  compound 
as  indicated  in  Section  /.  Z^  the  literal  meanings 
of  these  zvords  help  yon  to  nndchstand  these  kinds  of 
sentences?    IVhyf 

Analyse  the  follozving  thoughts  and  sentences 
according  to  the  follozving  scheme: 

Classify  the  sentences  on  the  two  kases  .which  we 
have  so  far  discovered,  that  is,  on  the  basis  of  chief 
purpose  and  the  basis  of  the  number  and  relation  of 
thoughts  expressed,  state  the  basis  in  each  case  and 
give  the  reasons  for  your  classification. 

T.       If  the  SENTENCE  IS  A  SIMPLE  SENTENCE: 

(a)  Give  the  elements  of  the  thought  expressed  by  it 
zi'ith  reasons  for  each. 

(b)  Give  the  parts  of  the  sentence  mith  reasons  for 
each. 

TT.     If  tttf  sentence  is  complex: 

(a)  Gizr  the  elements  of  the  entire  thought  zvith 
reasons. 

(b)  Give  the  parts  of  the  entire  sentence  with  reasons. 

(c)  Give  the  zvords  zviiich  express  the  principal  thought. 

1.  Give  the  elements  of  the  principal  thought. 

2.  Give  the  parts  of  the  principal  clause. 

(d)  Give  the  zuords  zvkich  express  each  subordinate 
thought. 

1.  Give  the  elements  of  each  subordinate  thought. 

2.  Give  the  parts  of  each  subordinate  clause. 


Classes  of  Sciitcuccs  39 

TIT.     If  the  sentence  is  compound: 

(a)  Give   the  words  zvJiich   express  each   independent 
iho  light. 

1.  Give  tlie  elements  of  each  independent  thought 

with  reasons. 

2.  Give  the  parts  of  each  independent  clause  with 

reasons. 

(b)  Give   the  words   which    express   each   subordinate 
thought,  if  any. 

1.  Give  the  elements  of  each  subordinate  thought. 

2.  Give  the  parts  of  each  subordinate  clause. 

1.  Genius  can  breathe  freely  only  in  the  atmosphere  of 
freedom. 

2.  The   pitch   of   the    musical   note    depends   upon   the 
rapidity  of  vibration. 

3.  We  can  easily  prove  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere. 

4.  They  who  are  accompanied  by  noble  thoughts  are 
never  alone. 

5.  Blessed  is  the  man  who  has  nothing  to  say  and  who 
ins-'sts  upon  not  saying  it. 

6.  William   Cullen   Bryant   was   born   at   Cummington, 
Massachusetts,  November  3,  1794. 

7.  The  Embargo  was  published  in  Boston  in  1809,  and 
was  written  when  Bryant  was  only  thirteen  years  old. 

8.  The  Catskill  Mountains  have  always  been  a  region 
full  of  fable.  — Irving. 

9.  He  was  accustomed  to  tell  his  story  to  every  stranger 
that  arrived  at  Mr.  Doolittle's  hotel.  — Irving. 

10.  Rip's  story  was  soon  told  for  the  whole  twenty  years 
had  been  to  him  but  as  one  night.  — Irving. 

ri.  Many  birds  have  different  tones  for  various  phases  of 
their  emotions. 

12.  Song  sometimes  seems  to  have  in  it  the  element  of 
rejoicing  in  anticipation. 


40  Ati  English  Grammar 

13.  There  is  a  power  whose  care 

Teaches  thy  way  along  that  pathless  coast. 

— Bryant. 

14.  Vainly  the  fowler's  eye 

Might  mark  thy  distant  flight  to  do  thee  wrong. 

— Bryant. 

15.  All  that  breathe  will  share  thy  destiny. 

— Bryant. 

16.  I  have  heard  that  nothing  gives  an  author  so  great 
pleasure  as  to  have  his  works  respectfully  quoted  by  other 
learned  authors.  — Franklin. 

17.  Silently,    one   by    one,    in    the    infinite   meadows    of 
heaven,  blossomed  the  lovely  stars.  — Longfellow. 

18.  This  pleasure  I  have  seldom  enjoyed. 

19.  Example   appeals   not   to   our   understanding   alone, 
but  it  awakens  our  passions  likewise. 

20.  If  thou  didst  ever  thy  dear  father  love,  revenge  his 
foul  and  most  unnatural  murder.  — Shakespeare. 

21.  The  strength  he  gains  is  from  the  embrace  he  gives. 

22.  If  you  blow  your  neighbor's  fire,  do  not  complain  if 
the  sparks  fly  in  your  face. 

23.  Do  not  measure  other  people  in  your  half  bushel. 

24.  There  is  no  flock,  however  watched  and  tended, 

But  one  dead  lamb  is  there ! 
There  is  no  fireside,  howsoe'er  defended, 

But  has  one  vacant  chair !  — Longfellozv. 

25.  Thou  lingering  star,  with  lessening  ray, 

That  lov'st  to  greet  the  early  morn. 
Again  thou  usherest  in  the  day 

My  Mary  from  my  soul  was  torn.  — Burns. 

i6.  Lightly  and  brightly  breaks  away 

The  morning  from  her  mantle  gray. 
^7.  Softly  sweet  in  Lydian  measures, 

Soon  he  soothed  his  soul  to  pleasures ; 
War,  he  sung,  is  toil  and  trouble; 


Classes  of  Scntoices  "il 

Honor  but  an  empty  bubble.  — Dryden. 

28.  'Tis  an  old  maxim  in  the  schools, 
That  flattery's  the  food  of  fools ; 
Yet  now  and  then  your  men  of  wit 

Will  condescend  to  take  a  bit.  — Swift. 

29.  'Tis  with  our  judgments  as  our  watches ;  none 
Are  just  alike,  yet  each  believes  his  own.    — Pope. 

30.  Love  is  the  ladder  on  which  we  climb 

To  a  likeness  with  God.  — Pope. 

31.  Heaven  from  all  creatures  hides  the  book  of  fate, 
All  but  the  page  prescribed,  their  present  state. 

—Pope. 

32.  Faith  builds  a  bridge  across  the  gulf  of  death. 

Exercise   ii-B 

Notice  the  simple,  complex  and  compound  sen- 
tences in  the  extract  from  Hawthorne's  "My  Visit 
to  Niagara",  on  page  68.  How  many  do  yon  find 
of  each?  How  are  they  distributed  through  the 
paragraph?  What  is  the  advantage  of  this  variety 
of  sentences? 

Paragraph  I.    Simple  Sentence. 

Rip  entered  the  house.  It  was  empty,  forlorn  and  ap- 
parently abandoned.  The  desolation  overcame  all  of  hi> 
connubial  fears.  He  called  loudly  for  his  wife  and  chil- 
dren. The  lonely  chambers  rang  for  a  moment  with  his 
voice.  Then  all  again  was  silence.  He  hurried  forth  and 
hastened  to  his  old  resort,  the  village  inn.  It,  too,  was 
gone.  —Irving. 

Paragraph  II.    Complex  Sentence. 

As  they  descended,  Rip  every  now  and  then  heard  long 
rolling  peals  like  distant  thunder,  that  seemed  to  issue  from 


■^2  An  English  Grammar 

a  deep  ravine,  or  rather  cleft,  between  lofty  rocks,  toward 
which  their  rugged  path  conducted.  Supposing  it  to  be  the 
muttering  of  one  of  those  transient  thunder-showers  which 
often  take  place  in  mountain  heights,  he  proceeded. 

— Irving. 

Paragraph  III.    Compound  Sentence. 

They  were  dressed  in  quaint,  outlandish  fashion ;  some 
wore  short  doublets;  others  jerkins  with  long  knives  in  their 
belts;  and  most  of  them  had  enormous  breeches  of  similar 
style  with  those  of  the  guide.  Their  visages,  too,  were 
peculiar:  one  had  a  larg'e  head,  broad  face,  and  small, 
piggish  eyes ;  the  face  of  another  seemed  tO'  consist  en- 
tirely of  nose,  and  was  surmounted  by  a  white  sugar-loaf 
hat,  set  off  with  a  little  red  cock's  tail. 

— Irving. 

Study  the  above  paragraphs  of  simple,  complex 
and  compound  sentences.  What  effect  on  the  mind 
have  the  different  forms  of  the  sentence?  Which 
is  most  dramatic?  Which  is  clear,  hut  sometimes 
contains  many  thoughts?  Which  smooth  and  grace- 
ful, hut  involved? 

Write  a  paragraph  relating  some  experience  of 
your  own.  Write  it  first  using  all  simple  sentences. 
Improve  the  smoothness  by  changing  some  of  the 
sentences  to  complex  and  some  to  compound  sen- 
tences.   See  that  all  three  kinds  are  represented. 


The  Third  Section 
Chapter  V 

THOUGHT  MATERIAL  OR  IDEAS 

26.  What  We  Have  Learned.  From  the  pre- 
ceding chapters  we  know  the  nature  of  a  thought 
and  the  nature  of  a  sentence.  We  know  th;il 
the  sentence  expresses  the  thought  and  that  the 
sentence  takes  different  forms  to  make  different 
impressions  upon  the  mind  or  to  express  different 
thoughts.  This  gives  us  different  kinds  or  classes 
of  sentences.  \\q  know  that  each  thought  is  made 
up  of  three  elements  and  that  each  sentence  con- 
tains three  parts,  subject,  predicate,  and  copula, 
corresponding  to  or  expressing  the  three  elements 
of  the  thought. 

27.  The  Use  of  Words.  We  now  find,  how- 
ever, that  these  organic  parts  of  the  sentence,  the 
subject,  predicate,  and  copula,  are  made  up  of 
smaller  units  which  we  call  words.  Subjects  are 
not  all  alike;  predicates  are  not  all  alike;  nor  are 
copulas  all  alike.  We  cannot  understand  words, 
however,  until  we  understand  that  which  the  word 
expresses,  the  idea,  just  as  we  saw  that  in  order 
to  understand  the  sentence,  we  must  understand 
the  thought  which  it  expresses.  The  word  is 
an  inslrunient  for  expressing  the  idea  jusL  as  the 

[43J 


44  An  English  Grammar 

sentence  is  the  instrument  for  expressing  the 
thought. 

Examine  the  ideas  expressed  by  the  words  in 
the  following  sentence  to  see  if  they  are  all  alike. 
How  do  they  differ?  Notice  how  the  mind  uses 
the  ideas  in  constructing  thoughts:  Jefferson,  the 
author  of  the  Constitution,  was  m  great  statesman. 

In  studying  the  ideas  expressed  by  the  words 
in  this  sentence,  you  will  notice  that  the  mind  can- 
not use  all  of  them  in  the  same  way  in  constructing 
a  thought.  Take,  for  example,  the  idea  expressed 
by  the  word,  Jefferson.  You  will  notice  that  it  is 
an  idea  which  may  be  made  the  subject  of  a  thought. 
We  may  think  or  affirm  or  assert  another  idea 
of  it.  We  may  think,  Jefferson  is  dead,  or  Jefferson 
zvas  independent  in  his  thought. 

We  call  such  an  idea  an  object  of  thought. 
The  ideas,  author,  Constitution  and  statesman  are 
also  objects  of  thought  because  the  mind  may  as- 
sert other  ideas  of  these. 

There  are  no  other  ideas  expressed  in  the  sen- 
tence about  which  the  mind  can  assert  another 
idea.  The  mind  cannot  assert  another  idea  about 
the  ideas  the,  of,  zvas,  a,  and  great.  These  are  not 
ideas  which  can  be  made  subjects  of  thoughts. 

Now  if  we  think  carefully  about  the  idea 
expressed  by  the  word,  great,  we  see  that 
it  is  an  idea  which  always  belongs  to  another 
idea.  We  cannot  find  a  great  by  itself.  In  this 
case,  the  idea,  great,  belongs  to  the  idea  statesman. 


Thought  Material  or  Ideas  45 

The  ideas,  the  and  a,  are  like  the  idea,  great.  These 
are  ideas  by  means  of  which  the  mind  distinguishes 
one  idea  from  another.  We  call  such  ideas  at- 
tributes. How  do  you  distinguish  a  chair  from 
a  table,  a  knife  from  a  pen? 

If  we  take  the  idea  expressed  by  the  word,  is, 
we  can  easily  see  that  it  is  not  an  object  of  thought, 
because  the  mind  cannot  assert  another  idea  of  it; 
nor  is  it  an  attribute  because  it  does  not  belong  to 
any  other  idea.  We  cannot  have  an  is  pen  or  an  is 
knife.  The  idea,  is,  is  merely  the  connection 
which  the  mind  sees  to  exist  between  the  thought 
subject,  Jefferson,  the  author  of  the  Constitution, 
and  the  thought  predicate,  a  great  statesman.  The 
idea,  of,  is  also  an  idea  of  relation.  It  is  merely  the 
connection  which  the  mind  sees  to  exist  between  the 
idea,  author,  and  the  idea.  Constitution.  If  I  hold 
a  book  just  above  the  table,  the  idea,  above,  is  the 
connection  which  my  mind  sees  to  exist  between 
the  hook  and  the  table.  If  I  hold  it  under  the  table, 
the  idea,  under,  is  the  idea  of  connection  which  my 
mind  sees  to  exist  between  the  two.  If  I  place  it 
upon  the  table  the  idea,  upon,  is  the  connection,  and 
so  on.  We  call  these  ideas  ideas  of  relation.  Find 
ten  ideas  of  relation  expressed  in  the  sentences  in 
Exercise  lo. 

28.  Ideas  Defined.  An  idea  is  any  mental 
activity  simpler  than  a  thought.  An  idea  is  any 
component  element  of  a  thought;  as,  The  sun  is 


46  All  Eiwlish  Grammar 


i>' 


ninety-tzvo  million  miles  distant.  Every  word  in 
this  sentence  expresses  an  idea.  Sometimes  two  or 
more  words  express  an  idea,  though  in  this  case, 
the  idea  is  complex,  composed  of  one  principal  idea 
and  other  subordinate  ideas  belonging  to  it.  The 
words,  TJie  sun,  in  this  sentence  express  such  a 
complex  idea ;  so  do  the  words,^  ninety-tzvo  million 
miles  distant.' 

An  object  of  thought  is  an  idea  about  which 
the  mind  can  assert  another  idea;  as,  Snow  is 
composed  of  little  crystals.  The  objects  of  thought 
are  the  ideas,  Snozv  and  crystals. 

An  attribute  is  an  idea  by  which  the  mind  dis- 
tinguishes other  ideas;  as,  The  Mississippi,  the 
largest  river  in  the  United  States,  flows  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  attributes  are  the  ideas,  The. 
largest,  and  flozus. 

An  idea  of  relation  is  the  connection  which 
the  mind  sees  to  exist  between  other  ideas;  as, 
The  scenery  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  unsur- 
passed. The  ideas  of  relation  are  the  ideas,  of  and 
is. 

These  are  all  the  kinds  of  ideas  which  the  mind 
uses  in  constructing  thoughts. 

Exercise  12 

Classify  the  ideas  expressed  by  the  zvords  in  the 
following  sentences,  giving  reasons: 

Model:  Elephants  are  poiverful  animals.  The  idea 
Elephants  is  an  object  of  thought  liecause  it  is  an  idea  about 


Thought  Material  or  Ideas  47 

which  the  mind  can  assert  another  idea.  The  idea  arc  is  an 
idea  of  relation,  because  it  is  the  connection  which  the  mind 
sees  to  exist  between  other  ideas.  The  idea  pozuerftil  is  an 
attribute  because  it  is  an  idea  by  which  the  mind  distin- 
guishes another  idea. 

I.  Find  all  the  objects  of  thought  expressed  in 
the  following  sentences,  and  give  reasons: 

1.  This  plant  came  from  Palestine. 

2.  The  people  watched  them  in  silence. 

3.  He  of  the  rueful  countenance  answered  without  delay. 

4.  Like  the  leaves  of  the  forest  when  summer  is  green, 
That  host  with  their  banners  at  sunset  were  seen ; 
Like  the  leaves  of  the  forest  when  autumn  hath  blown. 
That  host  on  the  morrow  lay  withered  and  strown. 

— Byron. 

II.  Find  all  the  attributes  expressed  in  the  fol- 
lozving  sentences,  and  tell  zvhy  they  are  attributes: 

1.  Truth  crushed  to  earth  will  rise  again. 

2.  The  smooth  glass  is  transparent. 

3.  The  running  stream  murmurs  sweetly. 

4.  The  morns  are  meeker  than  they  were, 
The  nuts  are  getting  brown ; 

The  berry's  cheek  is  plumper, 
The  rose  is  out  of  town. 

5.  The  maple  wears  a  gayer  scarf, 
The  field  a  gayer  gown. 

Lest  I  should  be  old-fashioned, 

I'll  put  a  trinket  on.  — Dickinson. 

III.  Find  all  the  ideas  of  relation  expressed  in 
the  folloiving  sentences,  and  tell  zvhy  they  are  ideas 
of  relation: 


^8  An  English  Grammar 

1.  The  red  sky  is  beautiful. 

2.  The  rushing  storm  is  frightful. 

3.  The  sun  is  set ;   the  swallows  are  asleep ; 
The  bats  are  flitting  past  in  the  gray  air ; 

The  slow,  soft  toads  out  of  damp  corners  creep, 
And  evening's  breath,  wandering  here  and  there 
Over  the  quivering  surface  of  the  stream, 
Wakes  not  one  ripple  from  its- silent  dream. 

— Shelley. 

IV.  Classify  the  ideas  expressed  by  the  words 
in  the  following  sentences,  and  give  reasons: 

1.  By  fairy  hands  their  knell  is  rung; 
By  forms  unseen  their  dirge  is  sung; 
There  Honour  comes,  a  pilgrim  gray. 
To  bless  the  turf  that  wraps  their  clay; 
And  Freedom  shall  awhile  repair 
To  dwell  a  weeping  hermit  there. 

— Collins. 
2.  The  Night  is  mother  of  the  Day, 
The  Winter  of  the  Spring, 
And  ever  upon  old  Decay 

The  greenest  mosses  cling. 
Behind  the  cloud  the  starlight  lurks. 

Through  showers  the  sunbeams  fall; 
For  God,  who  loveth  all  His  works, 
Hath  left  His  Hope  with  all ! 

— Whittier. 

Review  and  Work  in  Composition 

Song  of  the  Chattahoochee. 

Out  of  the  hills  of  Habersham, 

Down  the  valleys  of  Hall, 

I  hurry  amain  to  reach  the  plain, 


Thought  Material  or  Ideas  49 

Run  the  rapid  and  leap  the  fall. 
Split  at  the  rock  and  together  again, 
Accept  my  bed,  or  narrow  or  wide. 
And  flee  from  folly  on  every  side 
With  a  lover's  pain  to  attain  the  plain 
Far  from  the  hills  of  Habersham, 
Far  from  the  valleys  of  Hall. 

All  down  the  hills  of  Habersham, 

All  through  the  valleys  of  Hall, 

The  rushes  cried,  Abide,  abide, 

The  wilful  waterweeds  held  me  thrall, 

The  laving  laurel  turned  my  tide. 

The  ferns  and  the  fondling  grass  said  Stay, 

The  dewberry  dipped  for  to  work  delay, 

And  the  little  reeds  sighed.  Abide,  abide. 

Here  in  the  hills  of  Habersham, 

Here  in  the  z'a'lleys  of  Hall. 

High  o'er  the  hills  of  Habersham, 

Veiling  the  valleys  of  Hall, 

The  hickory  told  me  manifold 

Fair  tales  of  shade,  the  poplars  tall 

Wrought  me  her  shadowy  self  to  hold. 

The  chestnuts,  the  oak,  the  walnut,  the  pine, 

Overleaning  with  flickering  meaning  and  sign. 

Said,  Pass  not,  so  cold,  these  manifold 

Deep  shades  of  the  hills  of  Habersham, 

These  glades  in   the  valleys  of  Hall. 

And  oft  in  the  hills  of  Habersham, 

And  oft  in  the  valleys  of  TTall, 

The  white  quartz  shone,  and  the  smooth  brook-stone 

Did  bar  me  of  passage  with  friendly  brawl. 

And  many  a  luminous  jewel  lone 


50  An  English  Grannnar 

— Crystals  clear  or  a-cloud  with  mist, 

Ruby,   garnet   and   amethyst — 

Made  lures  with  the  lights  of  streaming  stone 

In  the  clefts  of  the  hills  of  Habersham, 

In  the  beds  of  the  valleys  of  Hall. 

But  oh,  not  the  hills  of  Habersham, 

And  oh,  not  the  valleys  of  Hall 

Avail :  I  am  fain  for  to,  water  the  plain. 

Downward  the  voices  of  Duty  call — 

Downward,  to  toil  and  be  mixed  with  the  main, 

The  dry  fields  burn  and  the  mills  are  to  turn. 

And  a  myriad  flowers  mortally  yearn. 

And  the  lordly  main  from  beyond  the  plain, 

Calls  o'er  the  hills  of  Habersham, 

Calls  through  the  valleys  of  Hall. 

— Lanier. 

Do  you  like  the  poem?  Why?  Explain  the 
thought  of  it  in  your  ozvn  zvords.  With  zvhat  dif- 
ficulties does  the  stream  meet  in  reaching  "'the 
main"?  What  human  qualities  does  the  stream 
exhibit?  What  is  the  zvorl^  of  the  stream  as  ex- 
pressed in  the  last  stam^a?  Does  this  poem  contain 
a  lesson  for  people?  Write  one-page  papers  in 
answer  to  tzvo  or  three  of  the  aboz'e  questions. 


Chapter  VI 

WORDS 

29.  The  Word  Defined.  Wq  have  seen  in 
the  preceding-  chapter  that  a  word  is  the  expression 
of  an  idea.  This  is  not  an  accurate  definition,  how- 
ever, for  sometimes  a  group  of  words  expresses 
an  idea;  as,  Our  friends  started  in  the  morning. 
The  expression,  in  the  nwrning,  expresses  an  idea 
of  time.  Sometimes,  too,  a  word  expresses  more 
than  one  idea;  as,  The  sun  shines.  The  word, 
siiines,  expresses  the  thought  relation  and  the 
thought  predicate.  We  can  see  that  it  expresses 
two  ideas,  because  it  is  equivalent  to  the  ex- 
pression, is  shining.  Here  the  word,  is,  expresses 
one  idea,  and  the  word,  shining,  expresses  another. 
There  are  some  words  also  which  do  not  express 
ideas,  as  we  shall  see'  later  on ;  but  for  all  practical 
purposes  we  may  say :  A  word  is  a  symbol  which 
expresses  an  idea.     This  is  its  usual  function. 

30.  Classes  of  Words.  We  have  seen  in  the 
preceding-  chapter  that  there  are  three  great  classes 
of  ideas:  objects  of  thought,  attributes,  and 
ideas  of  relation.  Since  words  are  the  instru- 
ments to  express  ideas,  just  as  sentences  are  the 
instruments   to   express   thoughts,   we   must   have 

[51] 


52 


An  English  Grammar 


three  great  classes  of  words;  one  to  express  ob- 
jects of  thought,  one  to  express  attributes,  and  one 
to  express  ideas  of  relation.  In  this  sentence,  The 
stars  are  beautiful,  the  word,  stars,  expresses  an 
object  of  thought.  In  the  sentence,  He  is  my  friend, 
the  words,  he,  my,  and  friend,  express  objects  of 
thought.  We  call  such  a  word  a  substantive 
word. 

A  substantive  word  is  a  word  which  expresses 
an  object  of  thought;  as,  Franklin  zvrotc  good 
English. 

In  the  sentence,  TJie  tall  man  zmlked  rapidly 
home,  the  words,  the,  fall,  walked,  and  rapidly,  ex- 
press attributes.  We  call  such  words  attributive 
words. 

An  attributive  word  is  a  word  which  expresses 
an  attribute;  as,  The  white  roses  are  fragrant. 

In  the  sentence,  The  zvater  flo7vs  through  the 
mill  by  the  river,  and  it  is  turning  the  maehinery, 
the  words,  through,  by,  and,  and  is,  express  ideas 
of  relation.   We  call  such  words  relational  words. 

A  relational  word  is  a  word  which  expresses 
an  idea  of  relation;  as.  The  mill  zvill  never  grind 
with  the  water  which  is  past. 

Exercise  13 

In  the  follozving  sentences,  point  out  the  sub- 
stantive, attributive,  and  relational  zvords,  giving 
reasons  for  each: 

I.  The  inventions  of  paper  and  the  press  have  put  an 


Words  o3 

end  to  all  these  restraints ;  they  have  made  everyone  a 
writer,  and  enabled  every  mind  to  pour  itself  into  print, 
and  diffuse  itself  over  the  whole  intellectual  world.  The 
consequences  are  alarming.  The  stream  of  literature  has 
swollen  into  torrent,  augmented  into  a  river,  expanded 
into  a  sea.  — lining. 

2.  He  may  live  without  books, — what  is  knowledge  but 
grieving? 
He  may  live  without  hope, — what  is  hope  but  deceiv- 
ing? 
He  may  live  without  love. — what  is  passion  but  pin- 
ing? 
But  where  is  the  man  who  can  live  without  dining? 

— Ozven  Meredith. 

31.  Substantive  Words:  Nouns  and  Pro- 
nouns. Examine  the  italicised  substantive  words 
in  the  follozving  sentences: 

1.  The  knife  is  on  the  table. 

2.  The  book  is  on  the  table. 

3.  The  pen  is  on  the  table. 

4.  It  is  on  the  table. 

When  we  use  the  substantive  words,  knife,  book, 
or  pen,  we  know  just  what  object  is  on  the  table  be- 
cause these  words  name  the  objects  of  thought 
which  they  express.  When  we  use  the  substantive 
word,  it,  we  are  not  sure  just  what  object  is  on  the 
table.  We  know  that  some  object  is  on  the  table, 
for  the  word,  it,  expresses  an  object  of  thought,  but 
it  might  be  the  pen,  the  book,  or  the  knife,  or  any 
other  object  of  thought,  because  the  word,  it,  does 
not  name  the  object  of  thought  which  it  expresses. 


54  An  English  Grammar 


&' 


This  (iilTereiice  in  the  way  in  which  substantive 
words  express  objects  of  thought  gives  us  two 
classes  of  them,  namel};,  nouns  and  pronouns. 

A  noun  is  a  substantive  word  which  expresses 
an  object  of  thought  by  naming  it;  as,  Senators 
are  elected  by  the  legislature. 

A  pronoun  is  a  substantive  word  which  ex- 
presses an  object  of  thought  without  naming  it ; 
as,  They  arc  elected  for  two  years. 

Exercise  14 

Point  out  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  tlie  follozv- 
ing  sentences.     Give  your  reasons  in  each  case: 

1.  Life,  we've  been  long  together; 

Through  pleasant  and  through  cloudy  weather. 

2.  'Tis  hard  to  part  when  friends  are  dear ; 
Perhaps  'twill  cost  a  sigh,  a  tear ; 
Then  steal  away,  give  little  warning ; 

Choose  thine  own  time; 
Say  not  "  goodnight," 
But  in  some  brighter  clime 
Bid  me  "  good-morning!  '' 

— Mrs.  Barbauld. 

3.  You  should  never  despair  of  truth. 

4.  They,  themselves,  welcomed  us  gladly. 

5.  I  talk  half  the  time  to  find  out  my  own  thoughts,  as 
a  schoolboy  turns  his  pockets  inside  out  to  see  what  is  in 
them.  — Holmes. 

32.  Attribute  Words :  Adjectives,  Attributive 
Verbs,  and  Adverbs.  In  the  sentence,  The  schol- 
arly man  is  in  demand  to-day,  the  word,  scholarly, 
is  an  attributive  word  because  it  expresses  an 


Words  55 

attribute.  The  attribute  expressed  by  it  belongs 
to  the  object  of  thought  expressed  by  the  word, 
maitj  hence  the  word,  scholarly,  expresses  an  attri- 
bute of  an  object  of  thought. 

In  the  sentence,  Truth  triumphs  in  the  end,  the 
word,  triumphs,  is  an  attributive  word  because  it 
expresses  an  attribute.  The  attribute  expressed 
by  it  belongs  to  the  object  of  thought  expressed 
by  the  word,  truth,  hence  the  word,  triumphs,  ex- 
presses an  attribute  of  an  object  of  thought. 

We  see,  then,  that  in  this  particular,  the  word, 
scholarly,  and  the  word,  triumphs,  are  just  alike. 
Each  expresses  an  attribute  of  an  object  of  thought. 
But  they  differ  in  one  feature  also.  The  word, 
triumphs,  expresses  a  thought  relation,  that  is, 
the  relation  between  thought  subject  and  thought 
predicate ;  while  the  word,  scholarly,  does  not.  This 
is  the  distinction  between  the  two. 

We  call  such  words  as  the  word,  scholarly, 
adjectives.  We  call  such  words  as  the  word,  tri- 
umphs,  attributive  verbs. 

An  adjective  is  an  attributive  word  which  ex- 
presses merely  an  attribute  of  an  object  of 
thought;  as,  Grateful  persons  resemble  fertile 
■fields. 

An  attributive  verb  is  an  attributive  word 
which  expresses  an  attribute  of  an  object  of 
thought  and  also  a  thought  relation;  as,  He  car- 
ried the  palm. 

\n  the  sentence.  TJic  clouds  of  adversity  soon 


Ob  A71  LLHglis.ii  Lrraiiunar 

vanisli,  the  word,  soon,  is  an  attributive  word  be- 
cause it  expresses  an  attribute.  The  attribute  ex- 
pressed by  it  does  not  ])elong  to  an  object  of 
thought,  so  it  cannot  be  an  adjective  or  an  attrib- 
utive verb.  The  attribute  expressed  by  the  w^ord, 
soon,  belongs  to  the  attribute,  expressed  by  the 
word,  vanishes,  hence  the  word,  soon,  expresses 
an  attribute  of  an  attribute.     ^ 

In  the  sentence,  Avarice  is  not  a  jezvel,  the 
word,  not,  is  an  attributive  word  because  it  ex- 
presses an  attribute.  It  does  not  express  an  at- 
tribute of  an  object  of  thought,  nor  does  it  ex- 
press an  attribute  of  an  attribute  Hke  the  word, 
soon.  The  word,  not,  expresses  an  attribute  which 
belongs  to  the  idea  of  relation  expressed  by  the 
word,  is,  hence  the  w^ord,  not,  expresses  an  attri- 
bute of  an  idea  of  relation. 

If  a  word  expresses  an  attribute  of  an  attribute, 
like  the  word,  soon,  or  an  attribute  of  an  idea  of  re- 
lation like  the  word,  not,  we  call  it  an  adverb. 

An  adverb  is  an  attributive  word  which  ex- 
presses an  attribute  of  an  attribute,  or  an  attri- 
bute of  an  idea  of  relation;  as,  Trade,  like  a  rest- 
ive liorse,  is  not  easily  managed.  The  pen  is  per- 
haps mightier  tJian  the  szuord. 

Exercise  15 

Point  out  the  adjectives,  attributive  verbs,  and 
adverbs  in  the  follozving  sentences.  Give  your  rea- 
sons in  each  case: 


Words  57 

1.  Presence  of  mind  is  greatly  promoted  by  absence  of 
body. 

2.  A  great  many  children  get  on  the  wrong  track  because 
the  switch  is  misplaced. 

3.  Blue  were  her  eyes  as  the  fairy  flax. 

4.  And  thrice  the  Saxon  blade  drank  blood. 

5.  Ere  long  he  reached  the  magnificent  glacier  of  the 
Rhone,  a  frozen  cataract  more  than  two  thousand  feet  in 
height,  and  many  miles  broad  at  its  base.  It  fills  the  whole 
valley  between  two  mountains,  running  back  to  their  sum- 
mits. At  the  base  it  is  arched,  like  a  dome,  and  above 
jagged  and  rough,  and  resembles  a  mass  of  crystals  of  a 
pale  emerald  tint,  mingled  with  white.        — Longfellow. 

6.  Highways  and  cross  paths  are  soon  traversed ;  and, 
clambering  down  a  crag,  I  find  myself  at  the  extremity  of 
a  long  beach.  — HauHhoruc. 

Find  the  attributive  verbs  in  tJiis  verse: 

Three  wives  sat  up  in  the  lighthouse  tower, 

And  trimmed  the  lamps  as  the  sun  went  down ; 
And  they  looked  at  the  squall,  and  they  looked  at  the  shower, 
And  the  rack  it  came  rolling  up,  ragged  and  brown ; 
But  men  must  work,  and  women  must  weep, 
Though  storms  be  sudden,  and  waters  deep,  -^ 

And  the  harbor  bar  be  moaning. 

— Kiiigsley. 

Find  the  adjectives  in  the  same  verse. 

33.  Relational  Words,  Pure  Verbs,  Preposi- 
tions, and  Conjunctions:  In  the  sentence,  Gh^ss 
is  transparent,  the  word,  is,  is  a  relational  word, 
because  it  expresses  an  idea  of  relation.  It  expresses 
the  idea  of  relation  between  the  thought  subject. 


58  A)i  English  Grammar 


&* 


Glass,  and  the  thought  predicate,  transparent,  and  it 
expresses  nothing  else.  The  attributive  verb  al- 
ways expresses  a  thought  relation  too,  but  it  always 
expresses  an  attribute  also.  This  word,  is,  and 
other  words  like  it,  never  express  anything  but  the 
thought  relation.  We  call  such  words  pure  verbs. 

A  pure  verb  is  a  relational  word  which  ex- 
presses only  a  thought  relation;  as.  Virtue  is  a 
jczvcl.     (Reread  section  i6  on  page  20  carefully.) 

Point  ont  the  pure  verbs  in  the  second  para- 
graph of  JVJiifc's  "  The  'Lunge"  on  page  jji*. 

In  the  sentence,  Choate  ivas  one  of  the  greatest 
men  of  the  age,  the  word,  of,  in  each  case  is  a 
relational  word  because  it  expresses  an  idea  of 
relation.  The  first  word,  of,  expresses  an  idea  of 
relation  between  the  ideas,  one  and  men;  the  sec- 
ond word,  of,  expresses  the  relation  between  the 
ideas,  men  and  age.  These  are  ideas  of  unequal 
rank,  that  is,  the  one  idea  belongs  to  the  other,  or  is 
subordinate  to  the  other.  They  are  not  of  equal 
importance  in  the  thought.  The  idea,  men,  is  sub- 
ordinate to  the  idea,  one;  and  the  idea,  age,  is  sub- 
ordinate to  the  idea,  men.  We  call  a  word  that 
expresses  this  subordinate  relation  between  ideas 
a  preposition. 

A  preposition  is  a  relational  word  which  ex- 
presses a  relation  between  ideas  of  unequal  rank; 

as,  TJic  country  zvas  ivasted  by  tJie  sword. 


Words  59 

Find  five  prepositions  in  the  first  paragraph  of 
"  The  'Lunge"  on  page  S3^- 

There  is  one  other  kind  of  relational  word.  In 
the  sentence,  Bread  and  milk  is  a.  good  food,  the 
word,  and,  is  a  relational  word  because  it  ex- 
presses an  idea  of  relation.  It  expresses  the  re- 
lation between  the  ideas,  bread  and  milk.  These 
ideas  are  of  equal  rank;  that  is,  they  are  of  equal 
importance  in  the  structure  of  the  thought. 
This  is  just  the  opposite  of  the  kind  of  relation 
expressed  by  the  preposition. 

In  one  way  it  is  like  the  relation  expressed  by  the 
pure  verb,  for  the  thought  relation  which  the 
pure  verb  expresses  is  a  relation  between  ideas  of 
equal  rank.  The  thought  subject  and  the  thought 
predicate  are  always  ideas  of  equal  rank  as  they 
are  both  principal  elements  of  the  thought.  But 
the  relation  expressed  by  the  pure  verb,  the  thought 
relation,  is  always  an  asserted  relation;  while  the 
relation  expressed  by  the  word,  and,  and  other 
words  like  it,  is  always  an  unasserted  relation. 
The  mind  does  not  assert  the  relation  between  the 
ideas,  bread  and  milk;  but  it  always  asserts  the 
thought  relation  or  the  relation  between  the  thought 
subject  and  the  thought  predicate. 

This  unasserted  relation  may  exist  between 
tlioughts  as  well  as  between  ideas;  as,  Tlie  hedges 
are  white  zvith  May,  but  the  wind  carries  traces  of 
March.    Here  the  word,  but,  is  the  relational  word 


Go  An  Englisli  Gramiiiar 

rind  it  expresses  an  unasserted  relation  between  two 
■Jioughts  of  equal  rank. 

Sometimes  this  kind  of  word  also  expresses  an 
'Miasserted  relation  between  thoughts  of  unequal 
rank;  as.  Let  my  right  hand  forget  her  cunning 
if  /  forget  thee.  Here  the  word,  if,  expresses  an 
unasserted  relation  between  the^  thought,  Let  my 
right  hand  far  get  her  cunning  and  the  thought,  / 
forget'  thee. 

We  notice  now  that  this  kind  of  w^ord  ex- 
presses merely  or  only  an  unasserted  relation  be- 
tween ideas  or  thoughts  of  equal  rank,  or  between 
thoughts  of  unequal  rank.  It  does  not  express  this 
relation  and  in  addition  to  it  an  object  of  chought, 
as  does  t-he  relative  pronoun ;  nor  does  it  express 
this  idea  of  relation  and  in  addition  to  it  an  attri- 
bute, as  does  the  conjunctive  adverb,  as  we  shall  see 
later  on.  These  words  have  simply  this  relational 
use  and  we  call  them  conjunctions. 

A  conjunction  is  a  relational  word  which  ex- 
presses only  an  unasserted  relation  between  ideas 
or  thoughts  of  equal  rank,  or  between  thoughts 
of  unequal  rank;  as,  The  flag  is  red,  zvJiite,  and 
blue.  Truth  is  often  crushed  to  earth  or  falsehood 
coidd  not  succeed  as  she  does.  We  zvaited  until  the 
train  arrived. 

Find  examples  of  these  conjunctions  in  "Rohm 
Flood  and  AUiu  a  Dale",  on  fagc  lOj. 

I.  Fill    the    following    blanks    with    relational 


Words  61 

words  which  express  asserted  relation  between 
ideas  of  equal  rank,  using  a  different  word  in  each 
case: 

1.  The  lion the  king  of  beasts. 

2.  The  soldier- -an  officer. 

3.  The  bells clear. 

4.  The  doctor here. 

5.  Our  teachers surprised. 

IT.  Fill  the  following  blanks  with  zvords  zvhich 
express  only  unasserted  relation  betiveen  ideas  of 
equal  rank: 

1.  Ten two  are  twelve. 

2.  The  hardships  of  the  voyage landing  were  num- 
erous. 

3.  Mr.  Hornung  sells  boots shoes. 

4.  The  badge  was  yellow blue. 

5.  His  sister  is  a  gracious talented  woman. 

III.  Fill  the  following  blanks  ivith  words  which 
express  only  unasserted  relation  betzueen  thoughts 
of  equal  rank: 

1.  Then  the  rains  descended the  floods  came. 

2.  Such  a  law  i-s  needed, this  one  is  faulty. 

3.  You  may  sun*  yourself  on  the  deck read  in  the 

cabin. 

4.  Improvement  comes  only   with  effort we  must 

all  work. 

5.  The  horse  is  beautiful he  is  unreliable. 

T\^  Fill  the  follozving  blanks  with  words  which 
express  only  unasserted  relation  between  thoughts 
of  unequal  rank: 


62  An  English  Grammar 

1.  We  shall  wait the  train  arrives, 

2.  James  cannot  go the  sun  rises. 

3.  You  will  be  successful- you  persist. 

4.  You  must  rise  early you  will  be  ready. 

5.  Samuel  will  not  come you  invite  him. 

V.  Fill  the  following  blanks  with  words  which 
express  relation  betzueen  ideas  of  unequal  rank: 

1.  The  snow' the  mountains  is  beautiful. 

2.  The  eagle's  nest  is  built the  crag. 

3.  The    castle Blenheim    stands the    river's 

brink. 

4.  The  flag the  battleship  was  destroyed. 

Tell  zvhat  kind  of  relational  zvord  you  have  in- 
serted in  each  group  and  zvhy. 

Exercise  16 

Classify  the  relational  zvords  in  the  following 
sentences,  giving  reasons: 

1.  The  legs  of  the  table  and  of  the  chair  were  made  of 
walnut. 

2.  He  spoke  and  they  listened. 

3.  They  listened  but  they  could  not  hear. 

4.  They  went  because  they  could  not  help  it. 

5.  If  any  one  attempts  to  haul  down  the  American  flag, 
shoot  him  on  the  spot. 

6.  They  only  knew  that  the  earth  was  bright  and  the 
sky  was  blue. 

7.  He  will  come  before  you  have  waited  long. 

8.  You  may  have  the  book  or  the  knife. 

9.  Grace  and  beauty  is  a  desirable  combination. 

10.  He  was  angry,  otherwise  he  would  have  stayed. 

11.  He  is  very  ill,  yet  he  may  live  a  week. 


Words  63 

12.  He  had  left  before  I  arrived. 

13.  We  heard  the  poet  and  artist. 

14.  Man  may  err.  but  no  one  but  a  fool  will  persist  in 
error. 

15.  The  wind  grumbled  and  made  itself  miserable  all  last 
night,  and  this  morning  it  is  still  howling  as  ill-naturedly 
as  ever,  and  roaring  and  rumbling  in  the  chimneys. 

— Hawthorne. 
16.  "  The  rose  is  fairest  when  'tis  budding  new, 

And  hope  is  brightest  when  it  dawns  from  fears, 
The  rose  is  sweetest  washed  with  morning  dew. 
And  love  is  loveliest  when  embalmed  in  tears. 

O  wilding  rose,  whom  fancy  thus  endears, 
I  bid  your  blossoms  in  my  bonnet  wave, 

Emblem  of  love  and  hope  through  future  years !  " 
Thus  spoke  young  Norman,  heir  of  Armadave, 
What  time  the  sun  arose  on  Vennachar's  broad 
wave.  — Scott. 

*34.  Form  Words:  Interjections  and  Ex- 
pletives. IV e  have  nozv  discoi'ercd  all  the  kinds  of 
ivords  zvhich  are  absolutely  essential  in  expressing 
our  fhougJifs.  If  zve  examine  the  italicized  words 
in  the  follozving  sentences,  hozvever,  zve  shall  see 
that  they  cannot  he  classified  a^  substantive,  attri- 
butive, or  relational  zvords: 

1.  Alas!    that  thou  shouldst  die! 

2.  Pshaw!   I  do  not  care  a  fig! 

3.  There  is  sunshine  in  my  soul. 

4.  There  are  four  boys  in  the  class. 

The  italicized  words  do  not  express  objects  of 


Note:     Pupils  should  not  spend  much  time  on  form  words. 


64  An  English  Gramniar 

thought,  attributes,  nor  ideas  of  relation.  The 
same  thoughts  or  essentially  the  same  thoughts 
may  be  expressed  by  the  sentences,  if  these  italicized 
words  be  omitted  from  them,  thus: 

1.  That  thou  shouldst  die! 

2.  I  do  not  care  a  fig ! 

3.  Sunshine  is  in  my  soul. 

4.  Four  boys  are  in  the  class. 

The  words,  alas  and  pshaw,  seem  to  express 
some  vague  kind  of  idea,  which  we  call  emotion 
or  feeling.  The  word,  there,  in  both  the  sen- 
tences, expresses  no  idea  at  all.  The  thought  ex- 
pressed by  the  sentence  is  just  as  complete  without 
it  as  it  is  with  it.  These  words  we  call  form 
words. 

A  form  word  is  a  word  which  is  not  essential 
to  the  expression  of  the  thought;  as, 

Oh,  that  I  had  the  wings  of  a  dove ! 
IVell,  what  did  he  say? 

We  do  not  mean  to  say,  however,  that  form 
words  are  of  no  use  in  the  sentence.  They  are 
not  essential  in  the  expression  of  the  thought, 
but  they  do  in  some  way  improve  the  form  of  the 
sentence  or  help  to  make  the  thought  clearer  or  more 
*'mphatic. 

The  form  words  like  oJi,  alas,  pshazv,  in  the 
sentences  already  given,  express  emotion  or  feel- 
ing, and  we  call  them  interjections. 

An   Interjection   is  a  form  word  which  ex- 


Words  65 

presses  emotion  or  feeling;  as,  Oh,  that  I  could 
find  hiin! 

Other  form  words  do  not  express  emotion  or 
feeling.  Some  of  them  simply  introduce  the  sen- 
tence or  make  it  less  abrupt ;  as,  Well,  did  you  vote? 

Others  change  the  arrangement  of  the  sentence, 
making  it  smoother;  as.  There  zvere  giants  in 
those  days. 

If  we  omit  the  form  word  we  must  change  the 
arrangement  of  the  sentence,  thus:  Giants  zvere 
in  those  days.  This  is  not  so  smooth  a  sentence  as 
the  other.    It  sounds  awkward. 

This  kind  of  form  words  we  call  expletives. 

An  expletive  is  a  form  word  which  changes 
the  arrangement  of  the  sentence,  makes  it  less 
abrupt  or  in  some  way  improves  its  form;  as, 

1.  Now,  I  do  not  believe  a  word  of  it. 

2.  There  were  five  people  present. 

3.  There  is  a  pleasure  in  the  pathless  woods. 

We  can  easily  see,  however,  that  these  are  not 
important  words. 

Notice  the  use  of  form  words  in  "  A  Selection 
from  Saul",  on  page  103. 

35.  Infinitives  and  Participles.  We  need  to 
notice  here  two  other  kinds  of  words.  They  are  not 
different  in  their  uses,  however,  from  nouns,  adject- 
ives, adverlis.  and  relational  words.  They  are  only 
forms  of  the  verb  which  have  lost  the  asserting 
power  or  the  power  of  expressing  a  thought  rela- 


66  An  English  Grammar 

tion  and  are  used  in  the  sentence  with  the  force  of 
some  other  word;  as, 

1.  The  sun,  shining  in  at  the  window,  warmed  the  room. 

2.  We  believe  in  the  life  to  come. 

3.  They  came  to  assist  us. 

4.  To  wander  in  the  woods  was  his  delight. 

The  word,  shining,  and  the  expressions,  to  come, 
to  assist,  and  to  wander,  are  forms  of  the  verbs, 
shine,  come,  assist,  and  wander,  but  they  do  not  ex- 
press thought  relations  in  these  forms.  The  word, 
shining,  and  the  expression,  to  come,  are  used  as 
adjectives;  the  expression,  fo  a^^w^,  is  used  as  an 
adverb;  and  the  expression,  to  zvander,  is  used  as  a 
substantive  word,  and  is  the  principal  part  of  the 
subject  of  the  sentence. 

These  w-ords  and  expressions  are  called  infini- 
tives and  participles,  but  for  the  present,  as  we 
are  now  dealing  only  with  the  uses  of  words,  we 
may  simply  call  them  nouns,  adjectives,  or  ad- 
verbs, according  to  their  use.  Later  on  we  shall 
take  up  these  words  and  study  them  in  detail. 
We  may  here,  however,  easily  formulate  the  fol- 
lowing definitions: 

An  infinitive  is  the  root  form  of  the  verb 
which  does  not  express  a  thought  relation;  as. 
To  walk  rapidly  is  tiresome. 

The  to  here  is  a  form  word,  not  a  preposition, 
as  it  usually  is.  It  is  a  part  of  the  infinitive.  We 
say  the  infinitive  is  the  expression,  to  walk.  The  to 
is  called  the  sign  of  the  infinitive. 


Words  ^'^ 

A  participle  is  the  derived  form  of  the  verb 
which  does  not  express  a  thought  relation;  as, 
The  man,  wretched  in  his  grief,  could  not  be  com- 
forted.    The  flood  of  time  is  rolling  on. 

Exercise  17 

Classify  the  words  in  the  following  sentences 
lyito  their  smallest  known  classes.  Give  your  rea- 
son in  each  case: 

r.  Hiawatha  thought  that  there  was  an  old  woman  m 
the  moon. 

2.  The  Httle  boy  asked  many  questions. 

3.  Nokomis  answered  his  questions. 

4.  Rippling  waters  sang  to  him. 

5.  What  is  the  water  singing.  Nokomis? 

6.  In  the  frosty  winter  nights,  Hiawatha  lay  on  his  bed 
of  moss. 

7.  "  The  broad  road  of  stars  is  the  pathway  of  the 
Indian  shadows."  said  Nokomis. 

8.  These  sounds  lulled  Hiawatha  to  sleep. 

9.  '■  I  will  sing  you  a  cradle  song,"  said  Nokomis. 
ro.  In  the  wigwam  it  was  dark. 

ri.  Now.  Barabbas  was  a  robber. 

12.  Well,  what  are  you  going  to  do  about  it? 

13.  Our  business  is  to  grow. 

14.  In  the  shipwreck  of  the  state,  trifles  float  and  are 
preserved :  while  everything  valuable  sinks  to  the  bottom, 
and  is  lost  forever. 

15.  In  peace,  children  bury  their  parents  ;  in  war,  parents 
bury  their  children. 

r6.  If  you  wish  to  enrich  a  person,  study  not  to  increase 
his  stores  but  to  diminish  his  desires. 

17.  Words  are  the  counters  of  wise  men,  and  the  money 
of  fools. 


<^>^  An  English  Gram  mar 

18.  A  juggler  is  a  wit  in  things,  and  a  wit,  a  juggler 
in  words. 

19.  Charity  creates  much  of  the  misery  it  relieves,  but 
does  not  relieve  all  the  misery  it  creates. 

20.  Worth  makes  the  man,  the  want  of  it  the  fellow. 

21.  And,  balancing  on  a  blackberry-briar, 
The  Cardinal  sang  with  his  heart  on  fire. 

22.  The  poor  and  the  rich,  the  weak  and  the  strong,  the 
young  and  the  old  have  one  common  ^Father. 

23.  Man,  likfe  the  child,  accepts  the  profifered  boon, 
And  clasps  the  bauble,  where  he  asked  the  moon. 

— Pope. 

24.  Know  then  this  truth,  enough  for  man  to  know. 
Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below.  — Pope. 

25.  O  summer  day  beside  the  joyous  sea ! 
O  summer  day  so  wonderful  and  white. 
So  full  of  gladness  and  so  full  of  pain ! 
Forever  and  forever  shalt  thou  be 

To  some  the  gravestone  of  a  dead  delight, 
To  some  the  landmark  of  a  new  domain. 

— Longfellozv. 

26.  Above  and  below  me  were  the  rapids,  a  river  of  im- 
petuous snow,  with  here  and  tliere  a  dark  rock  amid  its 
whiteness,  resisting  all  the  physical  fury,  as  any  cold  spirit 
(lid  the  moral  influences  of  the  scene.  On  reaching  Goal 
Island,  which  separates  the  two  great  segments  of  the  falls, 
I  chose  the  right-hand  path,  and  followed  it  to  the  edge  of 
the  American  cascade.  There,  while  the  falling  sheet  was 
yet  invisible,  I  saw  the  vapor  that  never  vanishes,  and  the 
Eternal  Rainbow  of  Niagara. 

— From  Hawthorne's  "  My  Visit  to  Niagara." 


Chapter  VII 

*THE  PHRASE 

36.  The  Phrase  Defined.  \A\^  have  now  dis- 
covered all  the  kinds  of  words  which  we  use  in 
expressing  our  ideas.  We  are  now  to  see  that 
sometimes  a  numher  of  words  unite  to  express  a 
single  idea,  or  the  group  of  words  may  have  the 
use  of  a  single  word  in  the  sentence;  as,  TJic 
speaker  stood  on  the  platform.  In  this  sentence 
the  group  of  words,  on  the  platform,  expresses 
the  idea  of  place.  My  brother  arrived  in  tJic 
evening.  In  this  sentence,  the  group  of  words,"! 
in  the  evening,  expresses  the  idea  of  time.  These) 
groups  of  words  are  used  in  the  sentence  with  the 
value  of  an  adveiTS.  A  man  of  zvealth  may  do  much' 
good.  The  group  of  words,  of  zvealth,  expresses 
one  idea  and  the  expression  is  used  in  the  sen- 
tence with  the  value  of  an  adjective. 

We  call  such  a  group  of  words  a  phrase. 

A  phrase  is  a  group  of  words,  not  having  a 
subject,  predicate,  or  copula,  which  is  used  in  the 
sentence  with  the  value  of  a  single  word;  as, 
To  succeed  in  life  is  his  desire. 


*  Note  :     Pupils  need  not  dwell  long  npon  classes  of  phrases  on 
the  basis  of  the  characteristic  word. 

[69I 


70  Ail  English  Grammar 

37.  Classes  of  Phrases.  In  the  sentence, 
He  came  info  the  room.  The  group  of  words,  into 
the  room,  is  a  phrase.  The  characteristic  word  of 
the  phrase  or  the  word  that  gives  character  or 
name  to  the  phrase  is  the  preposition,  into;  hence 
we  call  this  kind  of  phrase  a  prepositional  phrase. 

In  the  sentence,  William  likes  to  visit  his  friends 
frequently,  the  expression,  to  visit  his  friends  fre- 
quently, is  a  phrase.  The  characteristic  word  of 
this  phrase  is  the  infinitive,  to  visit;  hence  we  call 
this  kind  of  phrase  an  infinitive  phrase. 

In  the  sentence,  The  girl  reading  the  hook  is  my 
sister,  the  expression,  reading  the  book,  is  a  phrase. 
The  characteristic  word  of  this  phrase  is  the  parti- 
ciple, reading;  hence  we  call  this  kind  of  phrase  a 
participial  phrase. 

In  the  sentence.  The  boy  should  have  hurried, 
the  expression,  should  have  hurried,  is  a  phrase. 
The  characteristic  word  of  this  phrase  is  the  verb ; 
hence  we  call  this  kind  of  phrase  a  verbal  phrase. 

38.  Phrases  on  the  Basis  of  the  Characteris- 
tic Word  Defined.  We  have  seen  now  that  we 
have  four  kinds  of  phrases  on  basis  of  the  char- 
acteristic word,  as  follows : 

1.  A  prepositional  phrase  is  a  phrase  whose 
characteristic  word  is  a  preposition; as,  The  pris- 
oner stood  before  the  judge. 

2.  An  infinitive  phrase  is  a  phrase  whose  char- 
acteristic word  is  an  infinitive;  as,  To  read  Emer- 
son requires  concentration. 


The  Phrase  71 

3.  A  participial  phrase  is  a  phrase  whose  char- 
acteristic word  is  a  participle;  as,  Reading  Haw- 
thorne   is  a  delightful  pastime. 

4.  A  verbal  phrase  is  a  phrase  whose  charac- 
teristic word  is  a  verb;  as,  He  had  watched, 
with  a  beating  heart,  the  departure  oflhe  troops 
under  Diinwoodie.  Harvey  had  been  honest  with 
Jiis  captors. 

In  the  paragraph  from  Lord  Macaulay,  on  page 
TOi,  point  out  the  phrases  on  the  basis  of  the  char- 
acteristic zvord. 

39.  Classes  of  Phrases  on  the  Basis  of  Their 
Use  in  the  Sentence,  i .  In  the  sentence,  Throwing 
the  hammer  is  good  exercise,  the  expression, 
throwing  the  hammer,  is  a  participial  phrase,  on 
the  basis  of  the  characteristic  word.  It  is  used 
as  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  that  is,  with  the  value 
of  a  substantive  word;  hence  we  call  this  kind  of 
phrase  a  substantive  phrase. 

2.  In  the  sentence,  He  believed  himself  to  be  the 
messenger  of  the  Deity  to  the  people  of  Athens,  the 
expression,  of  the  Deity,  is  a  prepositional  phrase, 
on  the  basis  of  the  characteristic  word.  It  is  used 
in  the  sentence  as  an  adjective,  that  is,  with  the 
value  of  an  attributive  word;  hence  we  call  this 
kind  of  phrase  an  attributive  phrase. 

3.  In  the  sentence,  Cromzvell  might  have  been 
King,  the  expression,  might  have  been,  is  a  verbal 


72  All  English  Gram  mar 

phrase,  on  the  basis  of  the  characteristic  word.  It 
is  used  as  the  copula  of  the  sentence,  that  is,  with 
the  value  of  a  relational  word;  hence  we  call  this 
kind  of  a  phrase  a  relational  phrase. 

40.  Phrases  on  the  Basis  of  Their  Use  De- 
fined.    These  may  be  defined  as  follows: 

1.  A  substantive  phrase  is  a  phrase  which  is 
used  in  the  sentence  with  the  value  of  a  substan- 
tive word;  as,  TJic  Greeks  sought  to  produce  per- 
fect form. 

2.  An  attributive  phrase  is  a  phrase  which  is 
used  in  the  sentence  with  the  value  of  an  attribu- 
tive word;  b.s, Suddenly  a  man  wading  breast-high 
through  the  water  appeared. 

3.  A  relational  phrase  is  a  phrase  which  is 
used  in  the  sentence  with  the  value  of  a  relational 
.word;  as.  The  Spaniards  had  been  outwitted. 

41.  Classes  of  Attributive  Phrases,  i.  If  w^e 
examine  the  phrases  in  the  sentence,  So  confident 
was  lie  in  the  concliision  of  the  Council  that  he  had 
volunteered  in  the  niorning  to  go  thither  alone, 
we  can  see  that  attributive  phrases  are  not  all 
alike.  The  expression,  of  the  council,  on  the  basis 
of  the  characteristic  word,  is  a  prepositional  phrase; 
and  on  the  basis  of  use,  it  is  an  attributive  phrase. 
It  is  used,  however,  with  the  value  of  an  adjective ; 
hence,  on  the  basis  of  use,  we  can  put  it  into  a 
smaller  class  than  attributive.  We  call  such  an 
attributive  phrase  an  adjective  phrase. 


The  Phrase  73 

^':  -  f- 

2.  The  expression,  in  the  morning,  is  also  a 
prepositional  phrase,  on  the  basis  of  the  character- 
istic word;  and  on  the  basis  of  use,  it  is  an  attrib- 
utive phrase.  But  it  is  used  in  the  sentence  with 
the  value  of  an  adverb;  hence  we  call  this  kind  of 
attributive  phrase  an  adverbial  phrase. 

3.  Again,  if  we  notice  the  phrase,  had  volun- 
teered, we  can  see  that  on  the  basis  of  the  char- 
acteristic word,  it  is  a  verbal  phrase;  and  on  the 
basis  of  use,  it  is  an  attributive  phrase.  But  it  is 
used  in  the  sentence  with  the  value  of  an  attributive 
verb.  W'e  call  this  kind  of  attributive  phrase  an 
attributive  verb-phrase. 

On  the  same  basis  of  use  in  the  sentence,  then, 
we  have  the  attributive  phrase  divided  into  the 
adjective  phrase,  the  adverbial  phrase,  and  the 
attributive  verb-phrase. 

42.  Classes  of  Attributive  Phrases  Defined, 
These  may  1)c  defmed  as  follows: 

1.  An  adjective  phrase  is  an  attributive 
phrase  which  is  used  in  the  sentence  with  the 
value  of  an  adjective;  as,  He  took  a  house  in  the 
neighborhood  of  his  native  town. 

2.  An  adverbial  phrase  is  an  attributive 
phrase  which  is  used  in  the  sentence  with  the 
value  of  an  adverb;  as,  Athene  went  to  the  land 
of  the  Phoenicians. 

3.  An  attributive  verb-phrase  is  an  attribu- 
tive phrase  which  is  used  in  the  sentence  with  the 


74  An  English  Grammar 

value  of  an  attributive  verb;  as,  The  old  bell  had 
rung  out  joyfully  on  rnany  occasions. 

Exercise  i8 

Study  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Read  each  phrase  and  tell  why  it  is  a  phrase. 

2.  Classify  it  on  the  basis  of  its  characteristic 
word  and  give  a  reason. 

3.  Classify  it,  on  the  basis  of  use  in  the  sentence, 
into  its  smallest  known  class,  and  give  a  reason: 

1.  The  State  University  of  Minnesota  is  located  in  the 
city  of  Minneapolis. 

2.  He  has  learned  to  love  and  obey  his  teacher. 

3.  The  boy  to  be  chosen  must  be  intelligent  to  be  useful. 

4.  He  lives  to  assist  his  friends. 

5.  To  lie  willingly  is  base. 

6.  Walking  the  race  was  tiresome  to  the  man  wearing 
the  blue  coat. 

7.  We  coi.dd  not  cross,  being  unable  to  ford  the  river. 

8.  Being  a  member  of  the  regiment,  he  passed  unchal- 
lenged. 

9.  The  city  of  large  dimensions  sends  the  most  goods  to 
foreign  countries. 

10.  Caesar  might  have  been  King. 

11.  The  traveler  had  walked  many  miles. 

12.  The  child  sat  in  the  window. 

13.  The  temperature  of  California  is  mild. 

14.  Like  a  spear  of  flame  the  cardinal  flower 
Burned  out  along  the  meadow. — Eddy. 

15.  Time  is  the  warp  of  life. 

Oh,  tell  the  young,  the  gay,  the  fair, 
To  weave  it  well! — Marsden. 


The  Phrase  76 

1 6.  How  sweet  it  was  to  draw  near  my  own  home  after 
living  homeless  in  the  world  so  long ! — Hazvthorne. 

17.  Sweet  are  the  uses  of  adversity, 
Which  like  the  toad,  ugly  and  venomous, 
Wears  yet  a  precious  jewel  in  his  head. 

— Shakespeare. 

18.  The  sufficiency  of  my  merit  is  to  know  that  my  merit 
is  not  sufficient. — St.  Augustine. 

19.  There  were  tones  in  the  voice  that  whispered  then 
you  may  hear  to-day  in  a  hundred  men. — Holmes. 

20.  This  then  my  creed,  to  do  the  best  I  can 
And  grant  the  same  to  every  other  man ; 
So  live  that  my  attendant  angel  be 
Not  less  the  angel  for  his  walk  with  me. 

Review 

111  the  extract  from  Hazvthorne' s  "My  Visit  to 
Niagara",  on  page  68,  find  three  phrases  of  each 
kind  on  each  basis. 


Chapter  VIII 

MODIFIERS. 

43.  The  Modifier  Defined.  Now  that  we  set 
clearl}^  all  the  different  kinds  of  words,  we  are 
able  to  see  ho.w  these  words  may  be  united  in 
forming  subjects,  predicates,  and  copulas. 

Notice  first  that  each  italicized  expression  in  the 
following  sentences  is  a  word  or  group  of  words : 

1.  Milton,  the  poet,  was  blind. 

2.  Mary's  book  is  soiled. 

3.  The  white  snow  hurts  my  eyes. 

4<  The  minister  had  lately  come  from  the  East. 

The  first  italicized  expression  is  a  group  of 
words;  the  second,  a  word;  the  third,  fourth,  and 
fifth  are  words;  the  sixth  and  last  are  groups  of 
words;  and  the  seventh  is  a  word. 

Notice  next  that  each  italicized  expression 
changes  the  meaning  of  some  other  part  of  the 
sentence.  The  first  changes  the  meaning,  or  em- 
phasizes the  meaning  of  the  word,  Milton;  the  sec- 
ond changes  the  meaning  of  the  same  word,  Milton; 
the  third  changes  the  meaning  of  the  word,  book, 
so  does  the  fourth;  the  fifth  changes  the  meaning 
of  the  word,  snow;  the  sixth  changes  the  meaning 
nf  the  Avord.  hurts,  the  seventh  and  eighth  change 
Ht^  meaning  of  the  expression,  had  come. 

f76] 


THE   DAY'S   WORK 
(See  page   187) 


DONE 


Modifiers  .      77 

So  far  the  italicized  expressions  are  all  alike. 
Now  notice  one  fundamental  difference.  The  itali- 
cized expressions,  blind  and  soiled,  express  asserted 
ideas.  They  are  the  predicates  of  the  two  sentences 
in  which  they  occur.  All  the  other  italicized  ex- 
pressions express  unasserted  ideas.  This  is  the 
distinguishing  mark  of  a  modifier.  The  predicate 
is  a  principal  part  of  the  sentence,  hence  it  can  never 
be  a  modifier  or  a  subordinate  part  of  the  sentence 
any  more  than  the  copula  or  subject  can. 

A  modifier  is  a  word  or  group  of  words  which 
changes  the  meaning  of  some  other  part  of  the 
sentence,  by  expressing  an  unasserted  idea;  as. 
It  is  a  long  lane  fJiaf  has  no  turning. 

44.  Kinds  of  Modifiers.  If  you  will  notice 
the  modifiers  in  the  sentences  under  Section  43,  you 
will  see  that  they  do  not  all  express  the  same  kind 
of  idea.  The  first  expresses  an  object  of  thought; 
the  second,  Mary's,  expresses  an  object  of  thought ; 
the  third,  white,  expresses  an  attribute;  the  fourth, 
my  eyes,  expresses  an  object  of  thought;  and  the 
last  two  express  attributes.  We  may  conclude  from 
this  that  all  modifiers  will  express  either  objects 
of  thought  or  attributes. 

The  word  which  expresses  an  object  of  thought, 
we  have  called  a  substantive  word,  and  the  modifier 
which  expresses  an  object  of  thought,  we  may  call 
a  substantive  modifier.  For  the  same  reason,  we 
may  call  a  modifier  which  expresses  an  attribute  an 


T^  All  English  Grammar 

attributive  modifier.  Thus,  on  the  basis  of  the 
kind  of  idea  which  the}'  express,  we  may  divide 
all  modifiers  into  two  classes,  substantive  and  at- 
tributive. 

A  substantive  modifier  is  a  modifier  which  ex- 
presses an  object  of  thought;  as,  Arnold,  the 
traitor,  was  driven  from  I: is  nafiz'e  country. 

An  attributive  modifier  is  a  modifier  which 
expresses  an  attribute;  as,  The  tall  grass  swayed 
in  the  wind. 

Exercise  19 

/;/  the  following  sentences  point  out  all  the  modi- 
fiers and  tell  whether  they  are  substantive  or  attrib- 
utive.    Give  your  reason  in  each  case. 

1.  The  great  plains  are  good  grazing  districts. 

2.  The  girl  gave  her  mother  a  knowing  look. 

3.  The  squirrel  chattered  from  the  bough  of  the  oak 
tree. 

-j.  The  rabbit  came  forth  from  the  thicket  and  listened. 

5.  I  have  killed  the  famous  roebuck. 

6.  He  comes  because  he  is  entertained. 

7.  The  man  is  charitable  in  his  way. 

8.  The  apple  is  very  sweet. 

9.  The  girl  is  often  tardy. 

10.  The  .stranger  is  charitable  that  he  may  receive  praise. 

11.  The  teacher  is  strict  with  her  pupils. 

12.  The  woman  sells  apples. 

13.  Conscience,  our  monitor,  tells  us  when  we  are  wrong. 
■  14.  The  boy's  story'  was  pitiful. 

15.  Were  I  Midas,  I  Avould  make  nothing  else  but  just 
such  golden  days  as  these,  over  and  over  again,  all  the 
year  throughout.     My  best  thoughts  always  come  a  little  too 


Modifiers  Tl:*; 

late.  Why  did  I  not  tell  you  how  old  King  Midas  came  to 
America  and  changed  the  dusky  autumn,  such  as  it  is  in 
other  countries,  into  the  burnished  beauty  which  it  here  puts 
on  ?     He  gilded  the  leaves  of  the  great  volume  of  Nature. 

— Hawthorne. 
i6.  Nobod}'  knew  how  the  fisherman  brown, 

With  a  look  of  despair  that  was  half  a  frown, 

Faced  his  fate  on  that  furious  night, 

Faced  the  mad  billows  with  hunger  white. 

Just  within  hail  of  a  beacon  light 

That  shone  on  a  woman  fair  and  trim, 

Waiting  for  him.  — Larcom. 

45.  The  vSubstantive  Modifier.  Xoticc  tlic 
modifier  in  the  sentence,  Cicero,  the  orator,  ar- 
raigned Catiline.  The  modifier,  the  orator,  is  sub- 
stantive, we  notice  first.  In  the  second  place  it 
changes  the  meaning  of  the  substantive  word, 
Cicero.  Tn  the  third  place  we  notice  that  it  ex- 
presses the  same  object  of  thought  as  is  expressed 
by  the  word,  Cicero,  which  it  modifies,  only  it  ex- 
presses it  in  a  dififerent  way. 

We  call  such  a  substantive  modifier  an  apposi- 
tive  modifier. 

An  appositive  modifier  is  a  substantive  modi- 
fier which  changes  the  meaning  of  a  substantive 
word  by  expressing  the  same  object  of  thought 
in  a  different  way;  as, 

lliis  Monument  zvas  Erected 

In  Memory  of 

PHILIP  NOL/IXD, 

Lieutenant  in  the  Army  of  the  United  States. 


80  An  English  Grammar 

46.  The  Possessive  Modifier.  Now  notice  the 
first  modifier  in  the  sentence,  Wallace's  book  was 
exceedingly  popular. 

We  notice  first  that  it  is  a  substantive  modi- 
fier. Second,  it  changes  the  meaning  of  the  sub- 
stantive word,  book.  So  far  it  is  just  like  the  ap- 
positive  modifier.  But  we  notice  now  that  it  does 
not  express  the  same  object  of  thought  as  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  word  which  it  modifies.  It  changes 
the  meaning  of  the  substantive  word  which  it  modi- 
fies by  expressing  the  idea  of  possession.  It 
shows  who  wrote  the  book. 

We  call  such  a  substantive  modifier  a  posses- 
sive modifier. 

A  possessive  modifier  is  a  substantive  modi- 
fier which  changes  the  meaning  of  a  substantive 
word  by  expressing  an  idea  of  possession;  as, 
Tlie  man's  mind  was  undeveloped. 

47.  Direct  Objective  Modifier.  In  the  sen- 
tence, The  boy  struck  the  ball,  we  see  that  the 
modifier,  the  ball,  is  also  substantive.  Here,  how- 
ever, its  resemblance  to  the  appositive  and  the  pos- 
sessive modifiers  ceases,  for  it  changes  the  meaning 
of  the  attributive  word,^^n^c^. 

We  can  sec  also  that  the  object  of  thought 
expressed  by  the  modifier,  the  ball,  is  directly  af- 
fected   by   the   attribute   expressed   by   the   word. 

Note:     The    word,    frossessioii,   is   here    used    in    a    sense    broad 
enough  to  include  ownership,  authorship,  origin,  or  kind. 


Modifiers  81 

struck,  which  it  modifies.  In  other  words,  that  ob- 
ject of  thonght  is  the  direct  receiver  of  the  attri- 
bute or  the  attribute  g'oes  out  directly  to  that  ob- 
ject of  thought.  The  object  of  thought  expressed 
by  the  modifier  is  the  thing  struck. 

We  call  such  a  substantive  modifier  a  direct 
objective  modifier.  It  always  expresses  the  ob- 
ject of  thought  which  is  struck,  bought,  zvritten, 
given,  and  so  forth ;  as,  The  hoy  shot  the  bird.  The 
direct  objective  modifier,  flie  bird,  expresses  the  ob- 
ject which  was  shot,  or  it  expresses  the  direct  re- 
ceiver of  the  attribute,  shooting. 

A  direct  objective  modifier  is  a  substantive 
modifier  which  changes  the  meaning  of  an  attrib- 
utive word  by  expressing  the  direct  receiver  of 
the  attribute;  as,   The  girl  brought  the  water. 

Write  five  sentences  containing  direct  objectiz^e 
modifiers. 

48.  Indirect  Objective  Modifier.  In  the  sen- 
tence, Mary  brought  her  mother  a  drink  of  water, 
the  direct  objective  modifier  is  the  expression, 
a  drink  of  water.  It  expresses  the  object  of 
thought  which  was  brought.  The  modifier,  her 
mother,  is  also  substantive.  It  changes  the  mean- 
ing of  the  attributive  w^ord,  brought.  In  both  these 
points  it  is  like  the  direct  objective  modifier ;  but  it 
does  not   express   the  object  of  thought   which 


82  An  English  Grammar 

]\Iarv  brought.  The  object  of  thought  expressed 
l)y  the  modifier,  Jier  mother,  is  not  directly  affected 
by  the  attribute  expressed  by  the  word,  brought. 
Herein  it  differs  from  the  direct  objective  modifier. 

But  the  object  of  thought  expressed  by  this 
modifier,  Jier  mother,  is  affected  by  the  attribute 
expressed  by  the  word,  brought,  which  it  modifies. 
The  attribute  goes  out  directly  to  the  object  of 
thought,  a  drink  of  water,  1)ut  the  result  of  that 
comes  to  the  other  object  of  thought,  her  mother. 
This  object  of  thought  receives  the  result  of  the 
attri])ute.  So  that  we  may  say  that  the  object  of 
thought  expressed  by  the  modifier,  her  mother,  is 
indirectly  affected  by  the  attribute  expressed  by 
the  word,  brought,  which  it  modifies.  The  effect  of 
the  attribute  passes  through  the  object  of  thought, 
a  drink  of  zvater,  to  the  other  o1:)ject  of  thought,  her 
mother.  That  is  the  reason  why  we  say  it  is  indi- 
rectly aft'ected. 

AVe  call  such  a  substantive  modifier  an  indi- 
rect objective  modifier.  It  alw^ays  expresses  the 
object  of  thought  which  receives  the  result  of  the 
bityiug,  selling,  reading,  writing,  and  so  forth;  as, 
He  sold  his  horse  to  William.  The  indirect  object- 
ive modifier,  William,  expresses  the  object  which  re- 
ceives the  result  of  the  selling,  or  it  expresses  the 
indirect  receiver  of  the  attribute  of  selling. 

An  indirect  objective  modifier  is  a  substantive 
modifier  w^hich  changes  the  meaning  of  an  attrib- 
utive word  by  expressing  the  indirect  receiver  of 


Modifiers  ^3 

the  attribute;  as,  The  teacher  gave  the  boy  good 
advice. 

Write  five  sentences  containing  indirect  object- 
ive modifiers. 

49.  Adverbial  Objective  Modifiers.  In  the 
sentence,  Tlic  party  zvalkcd  home,  the  word,  home, 
is  a  substantive  modifier.  It  changes  the  meaning 
of  the  attributive  word,  zvalked.  So  far  it  is  just 
Hke  the  direct  and  indirect  objective  modifier.  But 
the  object  of  thought  expressed  by  it  is  not  in  any 
way  affected  by  the  attribute  expressed  by  the  word, 
walked.  Besides,  this  modifier,  home,  expresses  the 
idea  of  place.  In  the  case  of  other  modifiers  of 
this  kind,  we  might  find  that  they  express  time, 
distance,  extent,  and  so  on.  ^^"e  call  these  ad- 
verbial ideas  l)ecause  the\'  are  most  frequently 
expressed  by   the  adverb   or  adverbial   modifier. 

In  the  sentence,  Harrison  was  president  four 
years,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  this  modifier,  four  years, 
is  just  like  the  word,  home,  in  the  sentence  before, 
in  that  it  is  substantive  and  expresses  an  adverbial 
idea.  It  expresses  the  adverbial  idea  of  time. 
We  note  that  it  is  not  like  the  word,  home,  however, 
in  that  it  changes  the  meaning  of  the  relational 
word,  was,  instead  of  changing  the  meaning  of  an 
attributive  word,  as  the  modifier,  Jiomc,  does. 

We  have  here,  then,  a  substantive  modifier 
which  changes  the  meaning  of  an  attributive 
word  or  a  relational  w^ord  and  always  expresses 


84  All  Enf^lisli  Grammar 

an  adverbial  idea.  We  call  it  an  adverbial  object- 
ive modifier  because  it  is  somewhat  like  a  direct 
objective  modifier  and  somewhat  like  an  ad- 
verbial modifier. 

An  adverbial  objective  modifier  is  a  substan- 
tive modifier  which  changes  the  meaning  of  an 
attributive  word  or  of  a  relational  word  by  ex- 
pressing an  adverbial  idea;  as, 

1.  A  lau,q-h  is  worth  a  hundred  groans  in  any  market. 

2.  The  hird  built  her  nest  six  inches  above  the  door. 

Bring  to  class  five  sen  fences  containing  adverb- 
ial objective  modiiiers. 

Exercise  20 

/;/  the  following  sentences  point  out  all  the  sub- 
stantive modifiers,  tell  zvliat  kind  each  is,  and  give  a 
reason : 

1.  The  teacher  gave  the  brightest  pupil  a  reward. 

2.  The  boy  was  tardy  yesterday. 

3.  The  river  is  a  mile  broad. 

4.  You  should  have  come  an  hour  sooner. 

5.  Mooween,  the  bear,  is  shy. 

6.  The  wind  blew  the  apples  from  the  tree. 

7.  Orville's  hand  trembled  as  he  held  the  cup. 

8.  His  friend  gave  assistance  to  *  Walter. 

9.  The  man  sought  health. 

10.  Sunshine  gives  a  plant  strength. 

11.  Henry,  the  King,  was  absent. 


*Note:  The  preposition  is  frequently  used  with  the  indirect 
objective  modifier;  but  it  is  not  a  part  of  the  modifier.  The  indirect 
objective  modifier  here  is  the  word,  "  Walter,"  not  the  expression, 
"to  Walter." 


Modifiers       ■  .  ^^ 

12.  Love  thine  enemies. 

13.  Wellington's  victory  was  decisive. 

14.  Everything  came  to  him  marked  by  Nature,  Right 
side  up  with  care,  and  he  kept  it  so.  The  world  to  him,  as 
to  all  of  us,  was  like  a  medal,  on  the  obverse  of  which  is 
stamped  the  image  of  Joy,  and  on  the  reverse  that  of  Care. 
He  never  took  the  foolish  pains  to  look  at  the  other  side, 
even  if  he  knew  of  its  existence.  Lowell 

15.  And  the  cares  that  infest  the  day 
Shall    fold   their  tents  like  the   Arabs, 

And  as  silently  steal  away.  Lon '^fellow 

50.  Attributive  Modifiers.  We  have  now  to 
notice  that  attributive  modifiers  are  not  all  alike. 
In  the  sentence,  Quiet  waters  run  deep,  the  modi- 
fier, quiet,  is  an  attributive  modifier  because  it  ex- 
presses an  attribute.  The  attribute  expressed  by  it 
belongs  to  the  object  of  thought,  waters.  It,  there- 
fore, changes  the  meaning  of  the  substantive  word, 
waters.  The  attribute  expressed  by  it  is  not  an  as- 
serted attrilmtc.  We  call  such  an  attributive  modi- 
fier an  adjective  modifier„ 

An  adjective  modifier  is  an  attributive  modi- 
fier which  changes  the  meaning  of  a  substantive 
word  by  expressing  an  *  unasserted  attribute  of 
an  object  of  thought;  as,  It  is  a  long  lane  that  has 
no  turning. 

Give  five  examples  of  adjective  modifiers. 

*Note:  The  word,  unasserted,  is  necessary  in  this  definition  to 
distinguish  the  adjective  modifier  from  the  predicate  adjective,  which 
is  not  a  modifier  and  always  expresses  an  asserted  attribute;  as 
Sno'jv  is  white. 


86  An  English  Grammar 

51.  Classes  of  Adjective  Modifiers.  Nor  are 
all  adjective  modifiers  alike.  In  the  sentence,  The 
cold  ice  hurts  tiiy  teeth,  the  adjective  modifier,  cold, 
does  not  narrow  the  meaning-  of  the  word,  ice,  which 
it  modifies,  because  there  is  no  ice  that  is  not  cold. 
The  chief  purpose  of  this  adjective  modifier  is  to 
emphasize  the  attribute  which  it  expresses.  It  sim- 
pl}-  makes  prominent  the  attribute  of  the  object  of 
thought,  ice,  \\hich  does  the  hurting. 

Sometimes  the  adjective  modifier  does  narrow 
the  meaning-  of  the  word  it  modifies  to  some  extent, 
but  its  chief  purpose  is  still  to  emphasize  the  at- 
tribute which  it  expresses;  as,  These  are  beautiful 
days.  Now.  whenever  the  chief  purpose  of  the  ad- 
jective modifier  is  to  emphasize  or  call  attention 
to  the  attribute  which  it  expresses,  that  is,  when 
that  is  the  object  for  which  the  author  of  the  sen- 
tence has  used  it,  we  call  it  a  descriptive  adjective 
modifier. 

A  descriptive  adjective  modifier  is  an  adjective 
modifier  whose  chief  purpose  is  to  emphasize  the 
attribute  which  it  expresses ;  as,  His  father  is  an 
honest  man. 

52.  Limiting  Adjective  Modifier.  On  the 
other  hand,  many  adjective  modifiers  are  used  in 
some  sentences  to  emphasize  the  attributes  which 
they  express;  as,  My  father  is  a  large  man;  and  in 


Note  :     Pupils  need  not  dwell  long  upon  descriptive  and  limiting 
adjective   modifiers. 


Modifiers       '  •    87 

other  sentences  to  narrow  the  meaning  of  the  words 
which  they  modify;  as,  Large  men  arc  wanted  on 
the  police  force. 

Whenever  the  chief  purpose  of  an  adjective 
modifier  is  to  narrow  the  meaning  of  the  word 
w^hich  it  modifies,  we  call  it  a  limiting  adjective 
modifier. 

A  limiting  adjective  modifier  is  an  adjective 
modifier  whose  chief  purpose  is  to  narrow  the 
meaning  of  the  word  which  it  modifies;  as.  These 
men  arc  natives.  Brave  men  do  not  run  azvay  in 
battle. 

Give  five  examples  of  limiting  adjective  modi- 
fiers and  five  of  descriptive.  Point  out  two  descrip- 
tive and  two  limiting  adjective  modifiers  in  the  ex- 
tract from  Hawthorne's  ''My  Visit  to  Niagara", 
on  page  68. 

53.  The  Adverbial  Modifier.  In  the  sen- 
tence, The  colonies  grew  rapidly,  the  word,  rapidly, 
is  an  attributive  modifier.  It  differs  from  the  ad- 
jective modifier,  h()^\■cver,  in  that  it  changes  the 
meaning  of  the  attributive  word,  grew.  The  attri- 
bute expressed  by  the  modifier,  rapidly,  belongs  to 
the  attribute  expressed  by  the  word,  grew.  So  that 
this  modifier  expresses  an  attribute  of  an  attribute. 
Such  an  attri1)utive  modifier  we  call  an  adverbial 
modifier. 

This  is  not  the  only  kind  of  a  word  to  which  an 
adverbial  modifier  can  belong,  however,  as  we  shall 


88  An  English  Grammar 

see  if  we  examine  the  sentence,  The  story  is  cer- 
tainly a  11 07 'el.  Here  the  word,  certainly,  changes 
the  meaning  of  the  relational  word,  is.  The  at- 
tribute expressed  by  it  belongs  to  the  idea  of  rela- 
tion expressed  by  the  word,  is.  So  that  this  word, 
certainly,  expresses  an  attribute  of  an  idea  of  re- 
lation. AAV  call  this  an  adverbial  modifier  also. 
An  adverbial  modifier  is  an  attributive  modi- 
fier which  changes  the  meaning  of  an  attributive 
word  or  of  a  relational  word  by  expressing  an  at- 
tribute of  an  attribute  or  an  attribute  of  an  idea 
of  relation;  as. 

The  box  soon  returned. 

Tlie  story  is  perhaps  a  ivork  of  art. 

Write  three  examples  of  adverbial  modifiers 
which  belong  to  relational  words  and  five  zvhich  be- 
long to  attributive  zvords.  Find  Hve  examples  of 
the  adverbial  modifier  in  JThife's  "  The  'Lunge," 
on  page  ?  ?i'. 

54.  Adverbial  Ideas.  We  do  not  divide  the 
adverbial  modifier  into  classes,  but  we  may  easily  see 
that  they  do  not  all  express  the  same  kind  of  idea. 

The  most  important  adverbial  ideas  expressed 
by  the  adverbial  modifier  are  as  follow'S: 

1.  Time;  as,  My  father  came  in  the  morning. 

2.  Place;  as.  His  sister  lives  in  the  country. 

3.  Frequency;  as.  The  boy  is  often  tardy. 

4.  Purpose ;  as,  They  came  to  help  us. 

5.  Degree;  as,  The  horse  is  very  black. 


Modifiers  S'^^ 

6.  Negation;  as,   Tlie  story  is  not  true. 

7.  Doubt;  as,  The  picture  is  perhaps  fine  art. 

8.  Necessity;  as,  The  anszver  is  necessarily  correct. 

9.  Certainty;  as,  He  is  surely  right  about  it. 

10.  Condition;  as,  The  boy  will  come  if  you  wish  it. 

11.  Cause;   as,   The  flozvers  are  zmthered  because  the 
sun  is  hot. 

12.  Reason;   as.    The  flowers  are  zrithered   for   I    saw 
them. 

13.  Manner;  as,  My  friend  zvalks  rapidly. 

14.  Concession;  as,  Though  you  try,  you  zcill  fail. 

15.  Extent;  as,  The  horse  ran  to  the  end  of  the  lane. 

16.  Direction;  as,  The  doves  flezv  eastward. 

17.  Accompaniment;  as,  The  prisoner  escaped  with  his 
companions. 

18.  Instrumentality;  as.  The  farmer  cultivated  his  corn 
with  a  hoe. 

19.  Exclusion ;  as.  The  man  is  kind  except  to  his  horse. 

20.  Source;  as.  The  stream  flozvs  from  the  mountain. 

21.  Agency;  as.  The  people  zverc  represented  by  these 
men. 

22.  Means;  as,  The  bridge  zvas  built  with  the  people's 
money. 

23.  Duration;  as,  Sonic  must  zvatch  while  others  weep. 

Exercise  21 

Poijif  out  all  flic  affributivc  inodi/icr.s-  in  the  fol- 
lowing scufcuces.  Tell  ivhat  kind  of  attributive 
modifiers  they  arc  and  give  your  reasons.  Give  the 
adverbial  idea  expressed  by  eacJi  adverbial  modifier: 

1.  Mfanwiiilc  the  firing  continued  on  l)Oth  sides,  though 
the  Spaniards  were  eviilently  weakening. 

2.  The  child  was  good  in  school. 

3.  He  comes,  because  he  is  entertained. 


90  All  Eiiglis/i  Grammar 

4.  Still  Gil  stood  l)y  the  port  rail. 

5.  The  apple  is  very  sweet. 

6.  The  shots  frequently  rattled  above  his  head. 

7.  The  boy  seldom  winced. 

8.  The  stranger  is  charitable  that  he  may  receive  praise. 

9.  The  teacher  is  strict  with  his  pupils. 
10.  The  boy  went  with  his  mother. 

1 1    Gil  went  with  the  officers  to  headquarters. 

12.  The  cistern  has  been   filled  irom  the  spout. 

13.  He  would  not  give  up  his  secret  even  if  they  tortured 
him. 

14.  The  guard  house  was  unlocked  with  the  big  key. 

15.  It  is  probably  true. 

16.  The  story  is  certainly  interesting  and  perhaps  true. 

17.  He  traded  with  an  Indian. 

18.  He  built  the  house  with  his  own  money. 

19.  The  demonstration  is  necessarily  true. 

20.  The  ground  is  not  wet. 

21.  Roosevelt  is  at  this  time  president. 

22.  When   the   shadows   of  evening   fall,   the   sunbeams 
fly  away. 

23.  Make  hay  while  the  sun  shines. 

24.  The  buttercup  comes  early  in  the  spring. 

25.  The  party  walked  home. 

26.  The  bird  built  her  nest  six  inches  above  the  door. 

27.  We  stood  upon  the  ragged  rocks 
When  the  long  day  was  nearly  done. 


Chapter  IX 

THE  ORGANIC  PARTS  OF  THE  SENTENCE 

55.  How  They  are  Made  Up.  We  have  al- 
ready learned  that  the  organic  parts  of  the  sen- 
tence are  the  subject,  the  predicate,  and  the  copula. 
Since  we  now  know  different  kinds  of  words  and 
modifiers,  we  may  understand  how  these  organic 
parts  are  made  up. 

In  the  sentence,  Horses  are  animals,  each  part 
consists  of  a  single  word.  In  the  sentence,  The 
interesting  story  zvas  certainly  told  in  a  pleasing 
way,  each  part  consists  of  more  than  one  word. 
We  can  see,  however,  that  there  is  one  principal 
word  in  each  part  and  that  the  other  words  belong 
to  or  modify  this  principal  word  or  some  word  be- 
longing to  it.  For  example,  in  this  sentence,  the 
word,  story,  is  the  principal  part  of  the  subject. 
It  is  modified  by  the  word,  the,  a  limiting  adjective 
modifier ;  and  by  the  word,  interesting,  a  descriptive 
adjective  modifier. 

The  principal  part  of  the  predicate  is  the 
word,  told.  It  is  modified  by  the  expression,  in  a 
pleasing  ivay,  an  adverbial  modifier,  expressing 
the  adverbial  idea  of  manner.  The  principal  part 
of  this  modifier  is  the  w^ord,  ivay.     It  is  modified 


92  An  English  Grauiniar 

by  the  word,  a,  a  limiting  adjective  modifier,  and 
by  the  word,  pleasing,  a  descriptive  adjective  modi- 
fier. 

The  principal  part  of  the  copula  is  the  w^ord, 
was.  It  is  modified  by  the  word,  certainly,  an  ad- 
verbial modifier  expressing  the  adverbial  idea  of 
certainty. 

Thus  we  see  that  each  organic  part  of  the  sen- 
tence consists  of  a  principal  part  and  its  subordi- 
nate parts  which  are  modifiers.  The  principal  part 
of  the  subject  is  always  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  or 
some  expression  used  substantively;  as.  Interesting 
books  zvere  furnished.   He,  himself,  spoke  to  me. 

The  principal  part  of  the  predicate  ma}^  be 
substantive;  as,  This  man  is  an  excellent  lawyer; 
or  it  may  be  attributive ;  as.  Birds  sing  sweetly.  The 
woman  ivas  very  kind. 

The  principal  part  of  the  copula  is  alwavs  a 
relational  word;  as,  The  child  is  not  zvell. 

Exercise  22 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out  the  prin- 
cipal zuord  in  each  organic  part  and  explain  the 
uses  of  the  other  words: 

1.  Tabby,  the  house  cat,  lay  on  a  soft  rug  by  the  open 
door. 

2.  There  was  a  robin's  nest  in  that  tree. 

3.  The  tail  feathers  of  these  birds  were  a  dark  brown. 

4.  Presently  they  would  come  flyini^-  back  to  their  leafy 
home,  bearing  in  their  vellow  bills  some  choice  tidhit  for 
the  little  ones  in  the  nest. 


The  Organic  Parts  of  the  Sentence  93 

5.  Suddenly  she  made  a  spring  to  seize  the  helpless 
baby  bird  with  her  sharp  claws. 

56.  Compound  Subjects.  Sometimes  instead 
of  having  one  principal  part  or  word  in  the  sub- 
ject, we  have  two  or  more;  as,  Bread  and  milk  is 
a  good  food. 

We  call  this  a  compound  subject.  We  must 
be  careful,  however,  to  distinguish  this  kind  of 
sentence  from  a  compound  sentence;  as,  James 
and  Harry  study. 

This  sentence  does  not  contam  a  compound  sub- 
ject, but  it  is  an  abridged  compound  sentence.  It 
expresses  two  thoughts  of  equal  rank  for  it  means, 
James  studies  and  Harry  studies;  while  the  sen- 
tence with  the  compound  subject  cannot  be  ex- 
panded. It  does  not  mean.  Bread  is  a  good  food 
and  milk  is  a  good  food. 

57.  Compound  Predicates.  A\^e  often  have 
two  or  more  principal  words  in  the  predicate;  as, 
The  Hag  is  red,  white,  and  blue. 

The  expression,  red,  zvhite,  and  blue,  is  a  com- 
pound predicate.  Tt  does  not  mean,  The  flag  is 
red  and  tJie  Hag  is  zvhite  and  the  flag  is  bine.  It 
means  that  red,  zvhite,  and  blue  are  the  colors  of  the 
flag. 

This  is  entirely  different  from  the  sentence,  The 
violet  is  blue,  beautiful,  and  fragrant. 

This  sentence  means,  The  z'iolet  is  blue  and  the 


94  An  Englisli  Gram  mar 

violet  is  beaiitiful  and  the  violet  is  fragrant.     It  is 
an  abridged  compound  sentence. 

Exercise  23 

Tell  which  of  the  following  sentences  contain 
compound  subjects  or  predicates  and  which 
are  abridged  compound  sentences.  Expand  the 
abridged  compound  sentences  and  show  that  the 
others  cannot  be  expanded : 

1.  Justice  and  Mercy  are  desirable  qualities. 

2.  Health  and  wealth  are  desired  by  all. 

3.  Five  and  four  are  nine. 

4.  The  Puritan  and  the  Indian  are  fast  passing. 

5.  Yellow  and  blue  makes  a  pretty  badge. 

6.  A  desirable  combination  is  elegance  and  ease. 

7.  The  first  sure  symptom  is  love  of  ease  and  pleasure 
felt  at  home. 

8.  His  principle  is  justice  and  fairdealing. 

9.  The  parrot  talks  and  sings. 

10.  Mercy  and  truth  have  met  in  the  way. 

11.  Pinks  and  roses  are  fragrant. 

12.  The  sign  is  red  and  white. 

13.  Birds  chirp  and  sing. 

14.  The  moon  and  stars  are  shining. 

15.  The  scholar  and  poet  was  also  a  Christian  and 
patriot. 


Chapter  X 

THE  SIMPLE   SENTENCE   ' 

58.  Uses  of  Words  in  Simple  Sentence.    We 

are  now  prepared  to  examine  a  number  of  simple 
sentences  in  order  to  discover  the  following  points : 

I.  The  kind  of  words  used  in  forming  the  sim- 
ple sentence. 

•    2.  The  exact  use  of  each  kind  of  word  in  the 
simple  sentence. 

3.  The  modifiers  which  may  belong  to  each 
kind  of  word  in  the  simple  sentence. 

We  have  seen  in  the  last  two  Sections  that  there 
are  two  kinds  of  simple  sentence,  the  regular  simple 
sentence  and  the  simple  sentence  with  a  compound 
part. 

A  regular  simple  sentence  is  a  simple  sentence 
which  has  only  one  principal  word  in  each  of  its 
principal  parts;  as,  His  son  is  now  entering  college. 

A  simple  sentence  with  a  compound  part  is  a 
simple  sentence  some  principal  part  of  which  con- 
tains two  or  more  principal  words;  as,  A  combina- 
tion much  to  be  desired  is  health  of  body  and  beauty 
of  soul. 

59.  To  find  the  kind  of  words  in  a  simple  sen- 
tence. Tn  working  out  the  kinds  of  words  found 
in  the  simple  sentence,  their  uses  and  modifiers 
let  us  take  the  following  steps : 

[95] 


96  All  Eiiglis/i  Gram  mar 

1.  Classify  the  word  in  the  smallest  known 
class;  as,  noun,  adjective,  pure  verb,  etc. 

2.  Give  its  exact  use  in  the  sentence ;  as,  sub- 
ject, principal  part  of  the  subject,  appositive  modi- 
fier, principal  part  of  an  appositive  modifier,  limit- 
ing adjective  modifier,  etc. 

3.  Draw  a  conclusion  with  regard  to  the  class 
of  words  to  which  it  belongs. 

]\IODEL. 

To  make  this  clearer,  let  us  take  the  sentence,  I'lic  ^/'i[ 
Indian  rose  from  Iiis  seat. 

The  word,  the,  is  an  adjective,  h  is  used  as  a  liniitiuij^ 
adjective  modifier  of  the  word,  Indian.  Therefore,  an  ad- 
jective may  be  used  as  a  limiting  adjective  modifier  in  the 
simple  sentence. 

The  word,  big,  is  an  adjective.  It  is  used  as  a  descrip- 
tive adjective  modifier  of  the  word,  Indian.  Therefore,  an 
adjective  may  be  used  as  a  descriptive  adjective  modifier 
in  the  simple  sentence. 

The  word.  Indian,  is  a  noun,  h  is  used  as  the  principal 
part  of  the  suliject  of  the  sentence.  Therefore,  a  noun  may 
be  used  as  tho  principal  part  of  the  subject  of  a  simple  sen- 
tence. 

The  word,  rose,  is  an  attributive  verb.  It  is  used  as  the 
principal  part  of  the  predicate  of  the  sentence.  It  also  ex- 
presses the  thought  relation.  Therefore,  an  attributive  verb 
may  be  used  as  the  principal  part  of  the  predicate  of  a  sim- 
ple sentence.     It  also  expresses  the  thought  relation. 

The  word,  from,  is  a  preposition.  It  is  used  as  the  rela- 
tional word  of  the  prepositional  phrase,  from  his  seat. 
Therefore,  a  preposition  may  be  used  as  the  relational  word 
of  a  prepositional  phrase  in  the  simple  sentence. 

The  word,  his,  is  a  pronoun.     It  is  used  as  a  possessive 


TJic  Simple  Sentence  97 

modifier  of  the  word,  scat,      ihcrcfore,  a  pronoun  may  he 
used  as  a  possessive  modifier  in  the  simple  sentence. 

The  word,  scat,  is  a  noun.  It  is  used  as  the  principal 
word  of  the  prepositional  phrase,  from  his  seat.  Therefore, 
a  noun  may  be  used  as  the  principal  part  of  a  prepositional 
phrase  in  the  simple  sentence. 

Exercise  24 

In  the  following  sentences  will  he  found  ex- 
amples of  every  kind  of  substantive  zvord  zvhich 
niav  be  used  in  the  simple  sentence,  every  use  which 
each  niav  hair,  and  every  kind  of  modifier  zvhich 
each  may  take.  The  last  section  makes  clear  to  us 
liozv  zve  may  zvovk  these  points  out.  Take  each 
substantive  zvord  in  each  sentence  and  give  the 
foUozving  points  concerning  it: 

1.  Classify  the  word  in  the  smallest  known  class. 

2.  Give  its  exact  use  in  the  sentence. 

3.  Drazv  a  conclusion  zvith  regard  to  the  class  "• 
of  zvords  to  zvhich  it  belongs.     (See  Section  50.) 

4.  Give  all  the  modifiers  of  these  substantive 
words. 

1.  Flowers  are  plants. 

2.  Good  students  are  usually  the  best  scholars. 

3.  Samuel's  message  was  not  appreciated. 

4.  The  old  man's  head  dropped  upon  his  breast 

5.  The  Lord  loveth  a  cheerful  giver. 

6.  Boys  like  apples. 

7.  The  man  gave  books  to  the  children. 

8.  Esther  had  given  him  a  beautiful  cup. 

9.  My  brother  was  absent  years. 
10.  She  remained  three  days. 


98  An  English  Grammar 

11.  James,  close  the  door. 

12.  Winifred,  what  does  she  know  about  it? 

13.  Lee,  a  good  man  and  great  general,  was  fond  of 
children. 

14.  They  started  early. 

15.  He,  himself,  told  me  so. 

16.  This  is  he. 

17.  This  is  he  of  the  rueful  countenance. 

18.  They  gave  him  full  authority. 

19.  I  told  him,  himself,  of  his  mistake. 

20.  The  children  saw  her. 

21.  We  watched  him,  himself. 

22.  Their  recommendations  are  strong. 

23.  Without  me  ye  can  do  nothing. 

24.  The  distance  being  a  mile,  we  walked  it. 

25.  You,  I  mean  you. 

26.  He,  what  does  he  know  about  it? 

27.  I  alone  am  left  to  tell  the  story. 

28.  They  could  always  locate  the  ships  in  the  densest 
masses  of  smoke  by  these  flashes. 

29.  A  thousand  gallant  tars  were  waiting  anxiously  for 
that  signal. 

30.  The  heavy  masses  of  metal  tore  away  corners  of  the 
fort. 

State  clearly  all  the  uses  and  modifiers  of  sub- 
stantive words  in  the  simple  sentence.  Write  one 
original  example  of  each.  Find  examples  of  each 
use,  if  you  can,  in  "The  Beggar  Maid",  on  page 

115- 

Exercise  25 

In  the  follozving  sentences  will  be  found  exam- 
ples of  every  kind  of  attributive  zvord  which  may  be 
used  in  the  simple  sentence,  every  use  zvhich  they 


Tlic  Simple  Sentence  99 

may  have,  and  every  kind  of  modifier  which  they 
may  take.  Give  the  following  points  concerning 
each  attributive  zvord  in  the  sentences  below: 

1.  Classify  the  word  in  the  smallest  known  class. 

2.  Tell  its  exact  use  in  the  sentence. 

3.  Draw  a  conclusion  with  regard  to  the  class 
of  zvords  to  which  it  belongs.     (See  Section  59.) 

4.  Name  all  the  modifiers  of  these  attributive 
zvords. 

1.  The  large  horse  is  doubtless  exceedingly  useful  to 
his  owner. 

2.  The  house  stands  just  across  the  river. 

3.  The  river  is  a  mile  broad. 

4.  The  honest  boy  very  promptly  gave  the  man  his 
money. 

5.  The  lesson  should  have  been  prepared  an  hour 
sooner. 

6.  The  river  fell  six  inches. 

7.  The  garden  is  beautiful. 

8.  Very  weak  things  sometimes  confound  the  mighty. 

9.  Horace  Mann  was  kind  to  children. 

State  clearly  all  tJie  uses  and  modifiers  of  at- 
tributive words  in  the  simple  sentence.  Write  one 
original  example  of  each .  Find  an  example  of  each 
use  in  the  extract  from  Hazvthorne's  "My  Visit  to 
Niagara,"  on  page  68. 

Exercise  26 

Tn  the  following  sentences  zvill  be  found  exam- 
ples of  every  kind  of  relational  zvord  which  may  be 
used  in  the  simple  sentence,  every  use  which  each 


I'X*  Ah  Englis/i  Granunar 

may  hare,  and  every  kind  of  modifier  which,  each 
may  fake.  Give  the  foUowing  points  concerning 
each  relational  word  in  the  sentences  below: 

1.  Classify  the  word  in  the  smallest  knozvn  class. 

2.  Tell  its  exact  use  in  the  sentence. 

3.  Drazv  a  conclusion  witJi  regard  to  the  class 
of  7Vords  to  whicJi  if  belongs.     {See  Section  ^0.) 

4.  Name  all  the  modiliers  of  these  relational 
words. 

1.  You  are  doubtless  right. 

2.  The  boy  is  devoted  to  his  mother. 

3.  The  tree  stands  just  l:)elow  the  falls. 

4.  Harrison  was  president  four  years. 

5.  The  boy  lives  two  miles  below  the  mill. 

6.  The  teacher  gave  the  book  to  Sarah. 

7.  Two  and  one  are  three. 

8.  The  flower  is  red  and  white. 

9.  The  arrow  struck  two  inches  below  the  center. 

State  clearly  all  the  uses  and  modifiers  of  rela- 
tional zvords  in  the  simple  sentence.  Write  one 
original  example  of  each.  Find  an  example  of  each 
use  in  the  extract  from  Hazvf home's  ''My  Visit  to 
Niagara,"  on  page  68. 

Exercise  27 

In  the  follozving  sentences  will  he  found  exam- 
ples of  every  kind  of  form  word  which  can  he  used 
in  the  simple  sentence,  and  every  use  which  it  may 
have.  Give  the  follozving  points  concerning  each 
form  zvord  in  the  sentences  helow: 


The  Simple  Sentence  1^*1 

1.  Classify  flu  word  in  the  smallest  known  class. 

2.  Give  its  exact  use  in  the  sentence. 

3.  Draw  a  conclusion  with  regard  to  the  class 
of  7vords  to  which  it  belongs.     (See  Section  50.) 

1.  Pooh  !    I  do  not  believe  a  word  of  it. 

2.  Alas !  what  mortal  terror  we  are  in ! 

3.  Well,  did  you  vote? 

4.  Now,  I  am  sure  he  must  be  joking. 

5.  There  is  a  pleasure  in  the  pathless  woods. 

6.  There  have  always  been  people  longing  to  tell  bad 
news. 

7.  There  were  three  of  us  in  the  party. 

8.  There  are  ten  boys  in  the  class. 

Review 

Notice  the  eifect  of  the  use  of  the  short,  simple 
sentence  in  the  following  paragraph  front  Macaul- 
ay's  "Lord  Clive".  How  many  simple  sentences 
are  found  in  the  paragraph?  With  what  kind  does 
it  begin?  With  what  kind  does  it  close?  Why? 
Which  kind  is  more  dignified?     Which  is  clearer? 

During  fifty  days  the  siege  went  on.  During  fifty  days 
the  young  captain  maintained  the  defence,  with  a  firmness, 
vigilance,  and  ability  which  would  have  done  honor  to  the 
oldest  marshal  in  Europe.  The  breach,  however,  increased 
day  by  day.  The  garrison  began  to  feel  the  pressure  of 
hunger.  Under  such  circumstances,  any  troops  so  scantily 
provided  with  ofificers  might  have  been  expected  to  show 
signs  of  insubordination ;  and  the  danger  was  peculiarly 
great  in  the  force  composed  of  men  differing  widely  from 
each  other  in  extraction,  color,  language,  manners,  and 
religion. 


102  All  English  Grammar 

Exercise  28 

IVc  should  nozi'  be  able  to  give  a  complete  ex- 
planation of  a  simple  sentence.  Study  the  follow- 
ing simple  sentences  and  be  able  to  give  the  follozv- 
ing  points  concerning  them: 

1.  Give  the  sentence. 

2.  The  thought  expressed  by  it. 

3.  The  elements  of  the  thought. 

4.  The  parts  of  the  sentence. 

5.  Classify  the  sentence  upon  two  bases. 

6.  Classify  the  ideas  expressed  by  the  zuords. 

7.  Classify  the  ivords,  into  tlieir  smallest  known 
classes. 

8.  Name  the  principal  word  in  the  subject, 
predicate,  and  copula.    Give  all  the  uiodifiers. 

9.  Point  out  all  the  phrases,  and  classify  them 
upon  each  basis. 

1.  What  kind  of  people  first  inhabited  England? 

2.  The  ship  left  at  sunrise. 

3.  Forbid  it,  Almighty  God!    . 

4.  Sweet  is  the  breath  of  morn. 

5.  There  can  be  no  natural  desire  of  artificial  good. 

6.  Why  do  you  weave  around  you  this  thread  of  occu- 
pation ? 

7.  How  oft  the  sight  of  means  to  do  ill  deeds  makes  ill 
deeds  done ! 

8.  After  to-morrow  is  the  bane  of  many  a  life. 

9.  Old  John  of  Gaunt  is  grievous  sick,  my  lord. 

10.  Give  each  of  us  his  share. 

11.  To  Thee  we  bow,  Friend,  Father,  King  of  Kings! 


Tlic  Simple  Sentence  103 

12.  Oh  soul!    be  changed  into  small  water  drops. 

13.  Pride  goeth  before  destruction. 

14.  Break,  break,  break, 

On  thy  cold,  gray  stones,  O  Sea ! — Tennyson. 

15.  The  meeting  points  the  sacred  hairs  dissever 
From  her  fair  head  forever  and  forever. — Pope. 

16.  Night,  sable  goddess,  from  her  ebon  throne. 
In  ray  less  majesty,  now  stretches  forth 
Her  leaden  scepter,  o'er  a  slumbering  world. 

— Young, 
ly.  Every  man  has  within  himself  a  continent  of  undis- 
covered character. — Stephen. 

18.  From  peak  to  peak,  the  rattling  crags  among. 
Leaps  the  live  thunder. — Byron. 

19.  And  like  the  wings  of  sea-birds 

Flash  the  white-caps  of  the  sea. — Longfellow. 

20.  Marbles  forget  their  message  to  mankind. — Holmes. 

Work  in  Composition 

TJic  Rc7'icw 

A  SELECTION  FROM  "  SAUL  " 

"  Oh.  our  manhood's  prime  vigor !  No  spirit  feels  waste, 
Not  a  muscle  is  stopped  in  its  playing  nor  sinew  unbraced. 
Oh,  the  wild  joys  of  living!  the  leaping  from  rock  up  to 

rock. 
The   strong  rending  of  lioughs   from   the   fir-tree,  the   cool 

silver  shock 
Of   the  plunge    in   a   pool's   living   water,   the  hunt  of   the 

bear. 
And  the  sultriness  showing  the  lion  is  couched  in  his  lair. 
And    the    meal,    the    rich    dates    yellowed    over    with    gold 
dust,  divine. 


In4  //;/  n)iglish  Grammar 

And  tlu'  locust-llcsli  steeped  in  the  pitcher,  the  full  drau.qht 

<d'  wine, 
And  the   sleep  in   the  tlried   river-channel   where  hulrushes 

tell 
That  the   water   was   wont    to   "o   warbling   so   softly   and 

well. 
How  good  is  man's  life,  the  mere  living!  how  fit  to  employ 
All  the  heart  and  the  soul  and  the  senses  forever  in  joy! 

-^Robert  Browning. 

llih'  song  from  "  Saul"  was  sung  by  a  sJicplicrd 
box  to  a  great  king  zvlw,  because  of  his  zvrong  do- 
ing, had  lost  all  interest  m  life.  He  had  fallen  into 
a  stupor  from  zvhich  no  one  could  rouse  him. 

Read  the  poem  and  deterniine  zvhy  the  young 
musician  chose  this  song  to  sing  before  the  king. 

What  is  the  subject  of  the  song?  What  joys  of 
"mere  living"  are  named? 

Choose  an  appropriate  title  for  the  selection. 
JVrite  a  revieiv  one  paragraph  long  zvhich  zvill  so 
characterise  the  poem  that  a  person  zvlio  had  nez'cr 
read  it  zvould  get  a  clear  idea  of  its  spirit,  its  sub- 
ject, and  the  other  means  zvhich  the  author  has  used 
to  shozv  his  purpose. 

A  Title  should  .suggest  the  topic  of  a  selection  in 
a  few  words.  A  Review  aims  to  so  describe  a  poem, 
article  or  book  that  a  clear  idea  of  its  character  and 
content  is  given. 

Read  your  paper.  Does  your  title  express  the 
topic  briefly?  Haz'c  you  made  your  meaning  clear? 
Does  your  faragraph  deal  zvith  one  topic  only? 


The  Simple  Sentence  1^)5 

Ha\'c  \oit  found  your  sentence  endings?  Have 
you  chosen  the  best  possible  ivords  to  express  your 
meaning^ 

All  the  words  of  a  title  should  begin  with  cap- 
ital letters  except  prepositions,  articles  and  con- 
junctions which  should  not  begin  with  capitals, 
unless  used  as  the  first  word  of  the  title. 

The  titles  of  books,  poems,  stories  or  pictures 
should  be  inclosed  with  quotation  marks  when 
used  within  a  sentence. 


ROBIN  HOOD  AND  ALLIN  A  DALE. 

Come  listen  to  me.  you  gallants  so  free, 
All  \ou  that  love  mirth  for  to  hear. 

And  I  will  tell  you  of  a  bold  outlaw, 
That  lived  in   Nottinefhamshire. 


As  Robin   Hood  in  the  forest  stood. 

All  under  the  green-wood  tree. 
There  he  was  aware  of  a  brave  young  man. 

As  fine  as  fine  might  be. 

The   youngster   was  cloathed   in   scarlet   red, 

In  scarlet  fine  and  gay ; 
And  he  did  frisk  it  over  the  plain. 

And   chanted   a   roundelay. 

As  Robin   Hood  next  morning  stood. 

Amongst  the  leaves  so  gay. 
There  did  he  espy  the  same  young  man 

Come   drooping   along   the   way. 


106  An  Eiiglis/i  GraiiDiiar 

The  scarlet  he  wore  tlie  day  before, 

It  was  clean  cast  away ; 
i\.nd  at  every  step  he  fetcht  a  sigh, 

"Alack   and   a   well   a   day !" 

Then  stepped  forth  brave  Little  John, 

And   Midge   the  miller's  son, 
Which  made  the  young  man  bend  his  bow, 

When  as  he  see  them  come. 

"  Stand  off,  stand  off,"  the  young  man  said, 
"What  is  your  will  with  me?" 

"  You  must  come  before  our  master  straight, 
Under  yon  green- wood  tree." 

And  when  he  came  bold   Robin  before, 

Robin  askt  him  courteousl}-, 
"  O  hast  thou  any  monev  to  spare 

For  my  merry  men  and   me?" 

"  I  have  no  money,"  the  \oung  man   said, 

"But  five  shillings  and  a  ring; 
And  that  I  have  kept  this  seven  long  years. 

To  have  it  at  my  wedding. 

■'  Yesterday  I  should  have  married  a  maid. 

But  she  is  now  from  me  tane. 
And  chosen  to  be  an  old  knight's  delight, 

A\'herel)y   my    jioor    heart   is    slain." 

"  ^^'hat  is  thy  name?"  tlien  said  Robin  Hood, 
"  Come  tell  me,  without  an\'  fail :  " 

"  By  the  faith  of  mv  bod-\-,"  then  said  the  Nount 
"  Mv  name  it  is  Allin  a  Dale." 


The  Simple  Sentence  1^'^ 

"  What  wilt  thou  give  me."  said  Robin  Hood, 

"  In  ready  gold  or  fee. 
To  help  thee  to  thy  true  love  again. 

And  deliver  her  unto  thee?" 

"  I  have  no  money,"  then  quoth  the  young  man, 

"  No  ready  gold  nor  fee, 
But  I  will  swear  upon  a  book 

Thy  true  servant  for  to  be." 

"  How  many  miles  is  it  to  thy  true  love  ? 

Come  tell  me  without  any  guile :  " 
"  Bv  the  faith  of  my  body."  then  said  the  young  man, 

"  It  is  but  five  little  mile." 

Then  Robin  he  hasted  over  the  plain, 

He  did  neither  stint  nor  lin. 
Until  he  came  unto  the  church. 

Where   AUin   should    keep   his    wedding. 

"What  has  thou  here?"   the  bishop  he  said, 

"I  prithee  now  tell  unto  me:" 
"  I  am  a  l)old  harper,"  quoth  Robin  Hood, 

"  And  the  best  in  the  north  country." 

"  O  welcome,  O  welcome,"  the  bishop  he  said, 

"That  musick  best  pleaseth  me:" 
"  You  shall  have  no  musick."  quoth  Robin  Hood, 

"  Till  the  bride  and  the  bridegroom  I  see." 

With  that  came  in  a  wealthy  knight. 

Which  was  both  grave  and  old. 
And  after  him  a  finikin  lass. 

Did  shine   like  the  glistering  gold. 


108  An  English  Grammar 

"  This  is  not  a  fit  match,"'  quoth  hold  Rohin  Hood 
"  That  you   do  seem  to   make   here ; 

For  since  we  are  come  into  the  church. 
The  hride  shall  chusc  her  own  dear." 

Then  Rohin  1  l(,)od  put  his  horn  to  his  mouth. 

And  hlew  hlasts  two  or  three ; 
When   four  and  twenty  bowmen  bold 

Came   leaping  over  the  lee. 

And  when  they  came  into  the  church -yard, 

Marching  all  on  a  row. 
The  first  man  was  Allin  a  Dale, 

To  give  bold  Robin  his  bow. 

"  This  is  thy  true  love,"  Robin  he  said, 

"  Young  Allin,  as  I  hear  say : 
And  you  shall  be  married  at  this  same  time. 

Before  we  depart  away." 

"  That  shall  not  be,"  the  bishop  he  said, 

"  For  thy  word  shall  not  stand  ; 
They  shall  be  three  times  askt  in  the  church, 

As  the  law  is  of  our  land." 

Robin  Hood  pulld  off  the  bishoji's  coat. 

And  put  it  upon  Little  John ; 
"  By  the  faith  of  my  body."  then  Robin   said, 

"  This  cloath  does  make  thee  a  man." 

When  Little  John  went  into  the  quire. 

The  people  began  for  to  laugh  ; 
He  askt  then  seven  times  in  the  church. 

Lest   three   times   should   not   be   enough. 


The  Simple  Sen  fence  1<»*^ 

"Who  gives  nie  this  maid?"  then  said  Little  John; 

Quoth  Rohin  Hood.  "  That  do  I, 
And  he  that  tal\es  lier  from   Alhn  a  Dale 

Full   dearly  he  shall  her  Iniy." 

And  thus  having  ende   of  this  merry  wedding. 

The  bride   tookt  like  a  <|ueen. 
And  so  they  returned  to  the  merry  green-wood, 

Amongst  the  leaves  so  green. 

Read  "Robin  Hood  and  AUin  a  Dale." 

Whom  is  iJie  story  about/'  JVhere  is  the  seeiie:-^ 
llliat  is  the  time?  JVhat  happens  in  tlie  story/  I j 
you  like  Robin  Hood's  character,  tell  K'hy.  If  you 
like  the  zvay  th.e  story  ends,  tell  zvhy.  What  then 
would  you  say  is  the  purpose  or  point  of  this  poem/ 
Uliat  means,  that  is,  ivhat  characters,  scenes  and 
incidents,  has  the  author  employed  to  sliozv  his  pur- 
pose/ Describe  the  characters.  Tell  the  story  brief- 
ly.   Gii'e  your  criticism  of  the  poem. 

Write  a  rez'iezv  of  "  Robin  Hood  and  AUin  a 
Dale/'  Let  your  introductory  paragraph  introduce 
the  story  by  telling  the  purpose  of  the  story,  and  the 
means  employed  to  shoze  this  purpose.  The  para- 
graphs zvliich  follozv  should  each  take  one  topic  in- 
troduced in  the  first  paragraph  and  enlarge  upon  it. 
One  paragraph  should  describe  the  setting,  another 
the  characters,  another  tell  Ihe  story  bricHv  and  an- 
other giz'c  your  appreciatizr  criticism  of  the  poem. 

Study  the  follozving  rez'iezc  of  "  Brer  ITolf  Says 
Grace/'    l-ind  tJie  topic  of  eacli  paragraph.     Which 


110  All  English  Graiiuiiar 

f^aragrapJis  include  the  thought  of  the  otJiers? 
JJliich  are  merely  e.vf'lunatory  of  some  topie  al- 
ready suggested  F 

A  REVIEW  OV  ■•  BRER  WOLF  SAYS  GRACE." 
"  Brer  Wolf  Says  Grace  "  is  one  of  the  "  Uncle 
Remus  "  stories  written  in  negro  dialect  by  Joel  Chandler 
Harris.  It  tells  about  the  ancient  feud  between  Brer  Wolf 
and  Brer  Rabbit,  and  shows  how  a  small  creature  with 
brains  can  sometimes  get  ahead  of  a  larger  one  who  is  not 
so  clever. 

Brer  Wolf  and  Brer  Rabbit  are  both  very  entertain- 
ing, but  neither  is  to  be  wholly  admired.  Brer  Rabbit  is 
lazy  and  mischievous,  and  sometimes  cowardly  and  quite 
unreliable.  He  is  so  foolhardy  that  he  is  often  in  trouble, 
but  one's  sympathy  is  nevertheless  with  him.  Although 
he  is  smaller  than  the  other  creatures,  he  is  so  quick-witted 
and  clever  that  he  gets  ahead  of  them.  Brer  Wolf  is 
always  very  sure  of  himself ;  in  fact,  he  has  such  a  good 
opinion  of  himself  that  his  downfalls  seem  amusing. 

The  way  Brer  Rabbit  gets  ahead  of  Brer  Wolf  in  this 
story  is  this.  On  his  war  home  from  a  party,  one  day, 
Brer  Rabbit  finds  a  basket  full  of  greens  in  the  middle  of  the 
big  road.  He  looks  up  the  road  and  down  the  road  and 
sees  no  one  coming,  so  creeps  up  to  the  basket  and  takes 
a  nibble  and  then  a  bite  and  then  jumps  into  the  basket 
"  kerblam,"  landing  on  old  Brer  Wolf  hid  in  the  bottom. 
Brer  Rabbit  makes  excuses  and  tries  to  escape,  but  Brer 
Wolf  has  his  prey  and  does  not  intend  to  kt  him  go.  Brer 
Rabbit  resolves,  if  possible,  to  prevent  his  own  "  sacrifice  " 
and  so  begins  to  "  blubber  '"  and  to  beg  Brer  Wolf  to  sac- 
rifice him,  if  he  has  to  do  it  at  all,  in  the  right  way.  Brer 
Wolf  asks  how  that  is,  and  Brer  Rabbit  tells  him  to  shut 
his  eyes  and   fold  his   hands   and   say   grace.     This   Brer 


The  Simple  Sentence  111 

Wolf  finally  consents  to  do,  and  the  minute  Brer  Wolf's 
hands  are  off  from  him.  Brer  Rabbit  loses  no  time,  but 
makes  good  his  escape. 

The  story  is  full  of  odd  expressions  and  clever  inci- 
dents.    It  is  very  entertaining. 

The  Relation  of  Paragraphs.  Each  para- 
g-raph  of  a  composition  should  deal  with  one  topic 
of  the  central  thetne  or  purpose  and  should  be  so 
related  to  every  other  paragraph  that  the  point  to 
the  composition  is  made  clear.  The  introductory 
j)aragraph  of  a  review  should  prepare  the  reader's 
mind  for  what  is  coming  by  giving  a  general  idea. 
The  paragraphs  immediately  follow'ing  should  en- 
large and  explain  the  same.  The  final  paragraph 
should  emphasize  the  general  point  of  view  by  sum- 
ming up  the  thought  gf  the  other  paragraphs  or  by 
giving  a  general  comment. 

Indent  the  first  line  of  each  paragraph  and 
start  a  new  paragraph  with  each  change  of  top- 
ic. 


Chapter  XI 

THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE 

60.  Classes  of  Compound  Sentence,  just  as 
we  have  found  that  there  are  different  kinds  of 
simple  sentences,  so  we  may  see,  by  examining  the 
following,  that  there  are  different  classes  of  com- 
pound sentences : 

1.  All  flesh  is  grass  and  all  its  glory  fades. 

2.  My  roof  shall  always  shelter  and  protect  you. 

3.  Pitt  was  the  pilot  who  guided  the  ship  of  state  through 
a  stormy  sea  and  she  weathered  the  storm. 

1.  We  notice  that  in  the  first  sentence  there 
are  two  thoughts  expressed  and  that  each  ele- 
ment, (thought  subject,  thought  predicate,  and 
thought  relation)  of  each  thought  is  expressed 
separately  or  by  separate  words.  We  call  this 
kind  of  compound  sentence  a  regular  compound 
sentence. 

2.  In  the  second  sentence,  we  have  two  co- 
ordinate, independent  thoughts  expressed  also; 
thus,  My  roof  shall  always  shelter  you.  My  roof 
shall  alzvays  protect  you. 

In  these  two  thoughts,  however,  there  are  some 
common  elements  or  some  ideas  which  are  the  same 
in  both.  The  ideas,  my,  roof,  shall,  always,  and 
you,  are  common  to  the  thoughts. 

[n2j 


The  Compound  Sentence  113 

In  the  sentence,  My  roof  shall  akvays  shelter 
and  protect  you,  these  common  elements  of  the 
thoughts  are  expressed  but  once.  We  call  this 
kind  of  sentence  an  abridged  compound  sentence. 

3.  The  third  sentence  does  not  differ  from  the 
other  two  except  in  the  fact,  that  it  expresses  a 
subordinate  thought,  who  guided  the  ship  of  state 
tJirough  a  stormy  sea. 

^  We  call  this  kind  of  compound  sentence  a 
compound-complex  sentence  because,  while  it  is 
compound,  in  that  it  expresses  co-ordinate,  inde- 
pendent thou^c^-hts,  it  is  also  like  a  complex  sentence, 
in  that  it  expresses  a  subordinate  thought.  The 
compound-complex  sentence  may  express  more  than 
one  subordinate  thought. 

61.  The  Regular  Compound  Sentence.  This 
would  be  defined  as  follows:  A  regular  com- 
pound sentence  is  a  compound  sentence  in  which 
all  the  elements  of  all  the  thoughts  are  expressed 
separately;  as,  IVilliam  Penn  was  friendly  to  the 
Indians  and  Pennsylrania  was  not  molested  by 
them. 

62.  The  Abridged  Compound  Sentence.  Iliis 
may  be  defined  as  follow^s:  An  abridged  com- 
pound sentence  is  a  compound  sentence  in 
which  the  common  element  or  elements  of  the 
thoughts  are  expressed  but  once;  as,  Harrison 
was  a  lazvyer  and  a  statesman. 

63.  The  Compound-Complex  Sentence.    This 


114  An  English  Grammar 


&' 


may  be  defined  as  follows:  A  compound- complex 
sentence  is  a  compound  sentence  which  expresses 
one  or  more  subordinate  thoughts;  as,  When  we 
zvere  ready  wc  bci^an  iJic  zvork  and  zve  did  not  rest 
until  it  zvas  completed. 

Exercise  29 

Tell  zjuliat  kind  of  compound  sentence  each  of  the 
follozving  is,  and  zvhy: 

1.  Beautiful  things  ennoble  and  refine  the  character. 

2.  Science  awakens  man's  perceptions  and  language 
quickens  his  judgment. 

3.  A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath,  but  foohsh  words 
stir  up  strife. 

4.  Hawthorne,  who  was  a  very  sensitive  man,  shunned 
a  crowd,  but  he  was  fond  of  friends. 

5.  This  way  is  easy,  but  the  other  is  steep. 

6.  The  windows  of  the  soul  admit  Hght  and  resist 
harmful  influences. 

7.  He  who  would  be  served  in  his  }'Outh  and  loves  him- 
self most  knows  no  other  king ;    he  is  thoroughly  selfish. 

8.  He  worked  hard  to  keep  the  wolf  from  the  door  but 
he  succeeded  only  partially. 

9.  I  gained  an  insulated  rock,  and  beheld  a  broad  sheet 
of  brilliant  and  unbroken  foam,  not  shooting  in  a  curved 
line  from  the  top  of  the  precipice,  but  falling  headlong 
down  from  height  to  depth.  — Hawthorne. 

10.  The  bridge  was  tremulous  beneath  me,  and  marked 
the  tremor  of  the  solid  earth.  — Hawthorne. 

11.  The  south  wind  searches  for  the  flowers 

Whose  fragrance  late  he  bore ; 
And  sighs  to  find  them  in  the  wood 
And  bv  the  stream  no  more. — Bryant. 


The  Compound  Sentence  115 

13.  Tread  softly  and  speak  low; 

For  the  old  year  lies  a-dying'. — Tennyson. 

Work  in  Composition 

The  Rci'iezv  (Continued) 

THE  BEGGAR  ^lAID 

Her  arms  across  her  breast  she  laid : 
She  was  more  fair  than  words  can  say : 
Barefooted  came  the  beggar  maid 
Before  the  king  Cophetua. 
In    robe   and    crown   the   king   stept   down. 
To  meet  and  greet  her  on  her  way  : 
"  It  is  no  wonder,"  said  the  lords, 
"  She  is  more  beautiful  than  day." 

As  swims  the  moon   in  clouded   skies. 
She  in  her  poor  attire  was  seen  : 
One   praised  her  ankles,  one  her  eyes. 
One  her   dark   hair  and  lovesome   mien. 
So  sweet  a  face,  such  angel  grace. 
In  all  the  land  had  never  been  : 
Cophetua  sware  a  royal  oath  : 
"  This  beggar   maid   shall  be   my   queen !  " 

— Alfred   Tennyson. 

Read  "The  Beggar  Maid." 

What  zuas  'Tennyson's  purpose  in  zvriting 
this  poem?  What  persons,  places,  time  and  occasion 
has  he  used  to  shozv  tJiis  purpose?  Describe  the 
chief  character.  Tell  the  story  of  the  poem.  If  you 
like  the  poem,  tell  zvJiy. 

Outline  a  revieiv  of  the  poem.     J  Chat  zcill  you 


116  An  Eiif^Jish  Graiumar 

I  ell  ill  your  infroducfory  panv^raph.^  What  i^nll  be 
the  topics  of  some  of  the  other  paragraphs/  What 
will  you  tell  in  the  tiual  paragraph?  Write  a  review 
of  the  poem. 

In  oufUuiiig  a  paper,  decide  what  you  zvant  in 
your  introduction,  and  then  see  that  the  topics  of 
your  other  paragraphs  are  in  some  way  explan- 
atory of  Tvhat  has  been  suggested  there. 

Read  your  paper.  Is  it  interesting?  Are  its 
parts  so  related  that  they  are  smooth  and  easily  un- 
derstood? 

THE  HEIGHT  OE  THE  RIDICULOUS 

I   wrote  some   lines   once  on  a  time 
In   wondrous   merry  mood. 
And  thought,  as  usual,  men   would  say 
They   were    exceeding   good. 

They  were  so  queer,  so   \ery  queer, 
I  laughed  as  I  would  die ; 
Alheit,  in  the  general  way. 
A  sober  man  am   I. 

I   called   m\-   servant,   and   he   came: 
How  kind  it  was  of  him 
To  mind  a  slender  man  like  me. 
He  of  the  mightv  limb ! 

"  These  to  the  printer."  I  exclaimed, 
And.  in  my  humorous  way. 
I  added   (as  a  trifling  jest). 
"  There'll  be  the  devil  to  pay." 


The  Compound  Sentence  117^ 

He  took  the  paper,  and  T  watched. 
And   saw   him   peep  -within  ; 
At  the  first  Hne  he  read,  liis  face 
Was  all  npon  the  grin. 

He  read  the  next;  the  grin  grew  hroad. 
And  shot  from  ear  to  ear. 
He   read  the  third ;   a  chnckling  noise 
I  now  began  to  hear. 

The  fon.rth  ;  he  broke  into  a  roar ; 
The   fifth :    his   waistband    split ; 
The  sixth  :  he  bnrst  five  buttons  ofif. 
And  tumbled  in  a  fit. 

Ten  (la\s  and  nights,  with  sleepless  eye, 
I  watched  that  wretched  man. 
And  since.  I  never  dare  to  write 
As  funny  as  I  can. 

— Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

Read  "The  Height  of  the  Ridiculous." 

What  kind  of  a  poem  is  it?  JVhat  is  the  purpose 
or  point  to  the  story?  Hozv  is  this  shown?  If  you 
like  the  poem,  tell  why. 

JVrite  a  rcvieiv  one  paragraph  long  of  ''The 
Height  of  the  Ridiculous?'  Tet  the  first  sentence 
characterize  the  poem  by  telling  zvhat  kind  of  a  poem 
it  is.  and  its  purpose.  Let  the  others  tell  hozv 
JInlmes  accomplished  his  purpose,  and  made  the 
poem  the  kind  of  one  it  is. 

Read  the  follozving  paragraph  called  ''Caleb 
Plummer  and  His  Blind  Daughter?'  and  notice  hozv 


118  An  Eiiglisli  Cm  in  mar 

one  sentence  ij^krs  the  tofic  of  tlic  paragrapJi  and 
iJie  others  are  expUmatory  of  it. 

CALEB  PLUMMER  AND   HIS  BLIND  DAUGHTER. 

"  Caleb  and  his  blind  daughter  were  held  together  by  a 
close  bond  of  love,  and  yet  how  different  they  were!  He 
was  old  and  bent  and  careworn,  living  in  a  real  world  of 
poverty  and  shabbiness.  She  was  young  and  happy,  living 
in  a  dream  world,  a  world  created  by  her  father  that  he 
might  spare  her,  in  her  blindness,  all  the  hard  facts  of  her 
life.  He  was  sad  at  heart,  affecting  a  light  step  and  merry 
wavs  to  prevent  her  knowing  the  real  state  of  things. 
She.  with  a  heart  grateful  to  kind  Providence,  worked 
busily  with  her  delicate  fingers,  happy  in  her  thoughts, 
never  dreaming  of  her  father's  sacrifices  for  her." 

Read  the  verses  from  ''Saul"  on  page  lo^. 
Which  is  the  topic  sentence?  JVhich  are  explana- 
tory of  the  topic?    Which  are  used  for  emphasis? 

The  Relation  of  Sentences  in  a  Paragraph. 

The  sentences  in  a  paragraph  should  be  related  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  paragraphs  are  related  to 
each  other.  Each  paragraph  should  have  its  topic 
sentence  either  expressed  or  understood,  and  the 
other  sentences  should  be  used  either  to  explain  or 
emphasize  the  thought  contained  in  it. 

Re-read  your  paper.  Have  you  a  topic  sentence 
which  relates  the  other  sentences  in  your  para- 
graph ? 

64.  Words  Used  in  Forming  the  Compound 
Sentence.  We  max  easily  see  that  all  the  kinds 
of  words  used  in  forming  the  simple  sentence  are 


The  Compound  Sentence  111^ 

also  used  in  the  compound  sentence ;  that  they  have 
all  the  uses  in  the  compound  sentence  which  we 
found  them  to  have  in  the  simple  sentence ;  and  that 
they  have  the  same  kinds  of  modifiers  here  as  in  the 
simple  sentence. 

One  question  remains  to  be  asked  about  these 
words.  Do  any  of  these  kinds  of  words  have  uses 
in  the  compound  sentence  which  they  do  not  have  in 
the  simple  sentence?  This  is  answered  in  the  fol- 
lowing sections. 

65.  Groups  of  Words  Used  in  Forming  the 
Compound  Sentence.  In  the  simple  sentence, 
we  found  the  phrase  and  in  the  compound  sen- 
tence we  shall  find  all  the  classes  of  phrases,  used 
in  all  the  different  ways  A\hich  we  discovered  in  the 
simple  sentence. 

In  addition  to  the  phrase,  we  have  in  the  com- 
pound sentence  the  clause.  (See  Section  25.) 
We  now  wish  to  know  what  kinds  of  clauses  we 
have  and  how  they  are  used  in  the  compound 
sentence. 

'■'66.  The  Clause. 

The  sentence,  The  river  is  deep  since  the  heavy 
rains  fell  hnt  we  can  ford  it,  expresses  three 
thoughts,  namely: 

1.  The  river  is  deep. 

2.  Since  the  heavy  rains  fell. 

3.  We  can  ford  it. 

Note:     Do  not  dwell  upon  the  classes  of  clauses  except  on  the 
basis  of  use. 


120  All  English  Graminar 

Tliis  sentence,  llierefore,  contains  three  clauses. 
A  group  of  words  containing  a  subject,  predicate, 
and  copula,  which  is  used  as  a  part  of  a  sentence, 
is  a  clause. 

We  also  notice  that  the  clauses,  Tlie  river  is 
deep  and  we  can  ford  it,  are  of  equal  rank  in  the 
sentence;  while  the  clause,  since  flic  heavy  rains 
fell,  has  no  other  clause  of  equal  rank  with  it  in 
the  sentence.  We  are  looking  at  these  clauses,  then, 
in  relation  to  the  other  clauses  in  the  sentence.  On 
the  basis  of  relation  of  one  clause  to  the  other  clauses 
in  the  sentence,  we  have  two  kinds,  co-ordinate 
and  individual. 

67.  Clauses  on  the  Basis  of  the  Relation  of 
One  Clause  to  the  Other  Clauses  in  the  Sentence 
Defined.  There  are  two  kinds  of  clauses  on  this 
basis: 

1.  A  co-ordinate  clause  is  a  clause  which  is 
used  in  a  sentence  containing  another  clause  of 
equal  rank  with  it;  as,  The  sun  is  bright  but  the 
wind  is  cold. 

2.  An  individual  clause  is  a  clause  which  is 
used  in  a  sentence  containing  no  other  clause  of 
equal  rank  with  it;  as,  If  we  remain  here,  we 
shall  be  ont  of  danger  but  zve  cannot  see  the  battle. 

68.  Clauses  on  the  Basis  of  Use.  The  sen- 
tence, /  sec  that  yov.  are  in  earnest  but  I  cannot 
assist  you,   contains   three  clauses;   namely,      i.  / 


The  Compound  Sentence  121 

see.  2.  that  you  are  in  earnest.  3.  /  cannot  assist 
you. 

The  clause,  iliat  yon  are  in  earnest,  is  used  in 
the  sentence  with  the  value  of  a  single  word.  It 
is  a  direct  objective  modifier  of  the  word,  see.  We 
call  such  a  clause  a  subordinate  or  dependent 
clause. 

The  clauses,  /  see  and  /  cannot  assist  you,  are 
not  used  in  the  sentence  with  the  value  of  a  single 
word.  No  word  can  be  used  in  a  sentence  as  these 
clauses  are  used  in  this  sentence.  We  call  such 
clauses  independent  or  principal  clauses.  When 
such  a  clause  is  found  in  a  compound  sentence,  as 
in  the  above,  we  call  it  an  independent  clause;  but 
when  it  is  found  in  a  complex  sentence;  as,  We 
knew  not  zvJiat  ivc  should  do,  we  call  it  a  principal 
clause. 

69.  Clauses  on  the  Basis  of  Use  Defined. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  clauses  on  this  basis: 

1.  A  subordinate  or  dependent  clause  is  a 
clause  which  is  used  in  the  sentence  with  the 
value  of  a  single  word;  as  We  are  not  sure  when 
we  shall  start,  hut  zve  shall  go  early. 

2.  An  independent  or  principal  clause  is  a 
clause  which  is  not  used  in  the  sentence  with  the 
value  of  a  single  word;  as,  Harry  went  quickly, 
but  he  zvas  too  late.  The  law,  which  had  never  been 
enforced,  was  repealed. 


122  An  English  Grammar 

70.  Classes  of  Subordinate  or  Dependent 
Clauses.  The  sentence,  We  knoiv  that  you  will 
come  and  when  you  arrive^  we  shall  be  glad  to  sec 
you,  contains  two  subordinate  or  dependent  clauses. 
The  first,  that  you  will  come,  is  used  in  the  sentence 
widi  the  value  of  a  substantive  word.  It  is  a  direct 
objective  modifier  of  the  word,  know.  Since  it  is 
used  in  the  sentence  with  the  value  of  a  substantive 
word,  we  call  it  a  substantive  clause. 

A  substantive  clause  is  a  subordinate  or  de- 
pendent clause  which  is  used  in  the  sentence  with 
the  value  of  a  substantive  word;  as.  He  hopes 
that  you  will  succeed  hut  he  is  skeptical. 

The  second  clause,  when  you  arrive,  is  used  in 
the  sentence  with  the  value  of  an  attributive  word. 
It  is  an  adverbial  modifier  of  the  word,  glad,  ex- 
pressing the  adverbial  idea  of  time.  Since  it  is 
used  in  the  sentence  with  the  value  of  an  attributive 
word,  we  call  it  an  attributive  clause.  • 

An  attributive  clause  is  a  subordinate  or  de- 
pendent clause  which  is  used  in  the  sentence  with 
the  value  of  an  attributive  word;  as,    The  hook.^ 
which  was  soiled,  lay  on  the  table,  but  it  was  not  fit 
for  use. 

71.  Classes  of  the  Attributive  Clause.     The 

sentence,  TJie  boy  zvho  was  wanted  was  in  the  or- 
chard but  he  came  zvJien  his  father  called  him,]  con- 
tains two  attributive  clauses,  t.  The  hrst,  zvho 
was  wanted,  is  used  in  the  sentence  with  the  value 


The  Coinpoujid  Sentence  123 

of  an  adjective.  It  modifies  the  word,  hoy.  Since 
it  is  used  with  the  value  of  an  adjective,  we  call  it 
an  adjective  clause. 

An  adjective  clause  is  an  attributive  clause 
which  is  used  in  the  sentence  v^ith  the  value  of  an 
adjective;  as,  TJie  house  which  was  destroyed  by 
fire,  was  a  total  loss  hut  it  will  he  rehuilt. 

2.  The  second  clause,  when  his  father  called 
him,  is  used  in  the  sentence  with  the  value  of  an 
adverb.  It  is  an  adverbial  modifier  of  the  word, 
came,  expressing  the  adverbial  idea  of  time.  Since 
it  is  used  in  the  sentence  with  the  value  of  an  ad- 
verb, \ve  call  it  an  adverbial  clause. 

An  adverbial  clause  is  an  attributive  clause 
which  is  used  in  the  sentence  with  the  value  of  an 
adverb;  as,  The  night  is  dark  because  there  is  no 
moon  hilt  the  stars  iiive  some  li^ht. 

Exercise  30 

Point  out  all  the  clauses  in  each  of  the  following 
sentences  and  classify  them  on  the  hasis  of  relation 
of  one  clause  to  the  others  in  the  sentence  and  on 
the  hasis  of  use,  giving  your  reasons: 

1.  The  river  is  deep  but  we  can  ford  it. 

2.  The  person  who  knows  when  he  should  not  speak  is 
wise,  but  few  have  learned  this  art. 

3.  The  person  who  has  access  to  i^ood  books  is  fortu- 
nate and  he  should  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  use 
them. 

4.  The  boy  who  is  diligent  and  who  obeys  his  superiors 
will  be  respected ;    he  need  not  fear  failure. 


124  All  English  Grammar 

5.  When    spring   returns,   the   flowers   bloom   and   the 
birds  sing. 

6.  Galileo  believed  that  the  earth   was   round   and  he 
was  right. 

7.  I  know  whom  I  have  believed  and  I  am  persuaded 
that  he  is  able  to  save  me. 

8.  The  hand  that  rocks  the  cradle  rules  the  world  and 
this  is  not  strange. 

9.  The  storm  had  subsided  but  the  sea  was  still  furious. 

10.  The  subject  must  serve  his  prince  and  the  prince 
must  serve  his  subject,  because  God  commands  it  and 
human  laws  require  it. 

11.  Mortals  that  would  follow  me 
Love  Virtue ;    she  alone  is  free : 

12.  Or  if  Virtue  feeble  were, 

Heav'n  itself  would  stoop  to  her. — Milton. 

72.  The  Members  of  a  Compound  Sentence, 

In  the  sentence,  /  am  anxious  to  accommodate  you 
hut  I  cannot  grant  your  request,  we  have  two  inde- 
pendent clauses  of  equal  rank.  The  first  clause  is 
the  expression,  /  am  anxious  to  accommodate  you. 
The  second  clause  is  the  expression,  /  cannot  grant 
your  request.  The  sentence  is,  therefore,  compound 
and  these  coordinate  independent  clauses  are  called 
the  members  of  the  compound  sentence.  This 
sentence  has  two  members  but  a  compound  sentence 
may  have  more  than  two  members.  If  there 
is  a  subordinate  clause  in  a  compound  sentence, 
makino-  it  compound-complex,  the  subordinate 
clause  is  a  part  of  the  member  to  which  it  belongs. 
The  members  of  a  compound  sentence  are  the 


The  Compound  Sentence  125 

coordinate,  independent  clauses  which  compose 
it;  as.  The  historian  gives  us  facts  biit  the  writer 
of  literature  presents  truth. 

73.  Relations  Existing  between  the  Thoughts 
Expressed  by  the  Members  of  Compound  Sen- 
tences. If  we  examine  the  following  sentences 
carefully,  we  shall  see  that  coordinate  relations  or 
the  relations  between  the  thoughts  expressed  by 
coordinate  clauses  are  not  all  alike  • 

1.  I  awoke  and  I  got  up  at  once. 

2.  The  bird  was  shot,  or  someone  had  struck  it. 

3.  The  sun  was  up,  but  it  was  hidden  behind  the  clouds. 

4.  It  is  my  duty,  therefore  I  must  do  it. 

74.  Relation  of  Addition.  In  the  first  sen- 
tence the  thoughts  expressed  are  in  the  same  line 
or  of  the  same  kind,  and  one  is  added  to  the  other. 
The  thought,  /  azvoke,  is  in  harmony  with  the 
thought,  /  got  up  at  once,  and  one  is  simply  joined 
to  the  other.  We  call  this  kind  of  a  coordinate  re- 
lation a  relation  of  addition. 

A  relation  of  addition  is  that  coordinate  rela- 
tion which  exists  between  thoughts,  which  are  in 
the  same  line,  when  one  is  added  to  the  other;  as, 
Night  dropped  her  sable  curtain  down  and  pinned 
it  with  a  star. 

75.  Conjunctions  which  Express  the  Relation 
of  Addition.  Tlic  typical  conjunction  to  express 
this  relation  of  addition  or  the  conjunction  which 


126  All  Bnglish  Grammar 

is  used  most  frequently  to  express  it  is  the  word, 
and.  Other  conjunctions  frequently  used  to  express 
this  relation  are  as  follows:  also,  besides,  likewise, 
moreover,  furthermore,  both — and,  not  only — but 
also,  so — also.  These  are  called  copulative  con- 
junctions. 

76.  Relation  of  Opposition.  In  the  third  sen- 
tence in  Section  yT)^  we  have  a  relation  expressed  by 
the  word  bnt,  which  is  just  the  opposite  of  the  rela- 
tion of  addition.  The  thoughts  are  not  in  the  same 
line,  that  is,  they  are  not  alike  or  in  harmony.  The 
thought,  it  zvas  hidden  behind  the  clouds,  is  adverse 
to  the  thought,  the  sun  was  up.  This  kind  of  rela- 
tion is  called  a  relation  of  opposition. 

A  relation  of  opposition  is  that  coordinate  re- 
lation which  exists  between  thoughts  when  one  is 
in  some  way  adverse  to  the  other;  as,  A  fool 
speaks  all  his  mind,  but  a  zvisc  man  reserves  some- 
thing until  hereafter. 

77.  Conjunctions  which  Express  the  Relation 
of  Opposition.  The  typical  conjunction  to  ex- 
press the  relation  of  opposition  is  the  word,  but. 
Other  conjunctions  frequently  used  to  express  this 
relation  are  as  follows :  yet,  nevertheless,  however, 
still,  only,  whereas,  notzvith standing,  but — yet, 
while,  albeit.  These  are  called  adversative  con- 
junctions. 

78.  Relation  of  Alternation.  Sometimes  the 
mind  is  required  to  choose  between  the  thoughts 


The  Compound  Sentence  127 

expressed  by  the  members  of  the  compound  sen- 
tence, as  in  the  second  sentence  in  Section  73.  Here 
the  mind  has  presented  to  it  the  thought,  the  bird 
zvas  shot,  and  the  thought,  someone  had  struck  it. 
The  mind  cannot  accept  both  thoughts ;  it  considers 
them;  accepts  one;  and  rejects  the  other.  Some- 
times it  rejects  both ;  as,  It  is  not  raining,  nor  is  it 
snowing. 

We  call  this  kind  of  relation  a  relation  of  al- 
ternation. 

A  relation  of  alternation  is  that  coordinate 
relation  which  exists  between  thoughts  when  the 
mind  accepts  one  and  rejects  the  other,  or  rejects 
both  of  them;  as,  A  king  must  zvin  or  he  must  for- 
feit his  crown  forever.  Fie  is  neither  dishonest  nor 
iintrustzvorthy. 

79.  Conjunctions  which  Express  the  Relation 
of  Alternation.  The  t}'pical  conjunction  to  ex- 
press the  relation  of  alternation  is  the  word,  or. 
Other  conjunctions  frequently  used  to  express  this 
relation  are  as  follows:  either — or,  neither — nor, 
nor,  else,  othcvzvisc.  These  are  called  alternative 
conjunctions. 

80.  Relation  of  Conclusion.  Tn  the  fourth 
sentence  in  Section  73,  we  can  see  that  one  of  the 
thoughts  expressed  is  an  inference  from  the  other. 
The  thought,  /  must  do  it,  is  an  inference  from  the 
thought,  it  is  jiiv  duty.  W'c  call  this  kind  of  rela- 
tion the  relation  of  conclusion. 


128  An  English  Grmnmar 

A  relation  of  conclusion  is  that  coordinate  re- 
lation which  exists  between  thoughts  when  one 
is  an  inference  from  the  other;  as.  The  man  pays 
his  debts  promptly,  therefore,  lie  is  honest. 

8i.  Conjunctions  which  Express  the  Relation 
of  Conclusion.  The  typical  conjunction  to  ex- 
press this  relation  is  the  word,  therefore.  Other 
conjunctions  frequently  used  to  express  this  rela- 
tion are  as  follows:  hence,  for,  since,  then,  thus, 
consequently,  accordingly,  so.  These  are  called 
causal  conjunctions. 

Exercise  31 

Write  compound  sentences,  using  each  of  the 
conjunctions  in  the  preceding  lists  to  express  the 
different  kinds  of  relations  zvhich  may  exist  be- 
tween the  thoughts  expressed  by  the  members  of 
compound  sentences. 

Exercise  32 

Study  the  sentences  in  this  exercise  and  state 
the  follozving  points: 

1.  Giz'e  the  members. 

2.  Give  the  relation  existing  betzueen  the 
thoughts. 

3.  Name  the  conjunctions  zvhich  express  these 
relations. 

1.  The  man  dies  but  his  memory  lives. 

2.  Be  temperate  in  youth,  or  you  will  have  to  be  absti- 
nent in  old  aee. 


The  Compound  Sentence  120 

3.  The   swallows   are    flying   low,   and   we   shall   have 
rain. 

4.  The  truth  has  been  made  known,  therefore  you  may 
as  well  confess. 

5.  It  is  not  necessar\-  nor  is  it  advisable. 

6.  Some  are  born  great,  some  achieve  greatness,  and 
others  have  greatness  thrust  upon  them. 

7.  Of  thy  unspoken  word  thou  art  master ;   thy  spoken 
word  is  master  of  thee. 

8.  A   soft   answer  turneth   away   wrath,   but  grievous 
words  stir  up  anger. 

9.  A  blind  man  is  a  poor  man,  and  blind  a  poor  man  is ; 
^or  the  former  seeth  no  man,  and  the  latter  no  man  sees. 

10.  There  was  a  fair  maiden  lived  down  by  a  mill — 

Ferry  me  over  the  ferry,— 
Her  hair  was  as  bright  as  the  waves  of  a  rill. 
When  the  sun  on  the  brink  of  his  setting  stands  still. 

Her  lips  were  as  full  as  a  cherry. 

11.  The  splendor  falls  on  castle  walls 

And  snowy  summits  old  in  story ; 
The  long  light  shakes  across  the  lakes, 
And  the  wild  cataract  leaps  in  glory. 

— Tennyson. 

12.  And  now  there  came  both  mist  and  snow. 
And  it  grew  wondrous  cold. 

And  ice  mast-high  came  floating  liy. 
As  green  as  emerald. 

— Coleridge. 

13.  The  day  is  done;    and  slowly  from  the  scene 
The  stooping  sun  upgathers  his  spent  shafts. 
And  puts  them  back  into  his  golden  quiver, 

— Lon^fellozv. 

82.  Uses  of  Words  in  the  Compound  Sen- 
tence.    \\q  have  already  seen  that  the  conjunc- 


130  All  English  Grammar' 

tion  can  have  one  use  in  the  compound  sentence 
in  addition  to  that  which  it  has  in  the  simple  sen- 
tence. In  the  simple  sentence  its  only  use  is  to 
express  relation  between  ideas  of  equal  rank.  In 
the  compound  sentence  it  can  express,  (i)  rela- 
tion between  thoughts  of  equal  rank;  as,  The  street 
ivas  muddy,  but  the  men  willingly  marched  through 
it. 

The  conjunction  may  also  express  (2)  relation 
between  thoughts  of  unequal  rank  in  the  com- 
pound sentence;  as,  The  facts  were  publisJied  be- 
cause it  zvas  impossible  longer  to  suppress  them, 
hut  they  did  not  arouse  the  public. 

The  pronoun,  in  addition  to  the  uses  found  for 
it  in  the  simple  sentence,  may  in  the  compound  sen- 
tence express  relation  between  thoughts  of  unequal 
rank;  as,  The  Czar,  who  was  ignoran"  of  the  zuishes 
of  his  people,  finally  had  to  be  told  the  truth;  but 
he  did  not  have  the  moral  courage  to  grant  them 
justice. 

The  adverb,  in  addition  to  the  uses  found  for 
it  in  the  simple  sentence,  expresses  in  the  compound 
sentence  also  a  relation  between  thoughts  of  unequal 
rank;  as.  They  were  ready  when  the  time  came,  hut 
their  assistance  was  not  needed. 

Aside  from  these  additional  uses  words  are 
used  in  the  compound  sentence  just  as  they  are  in 
the  simple  sentence,  and  they  take  the  same  kinds 
of  modifiers. 


The  Compound  Sentence  131 

Work  in  Composition 

Tiic  Rci'icii'  (Continued) 

Read  the  extract  from  "  Evangeline '\  P<^g^  30. 

What  zvas  the  author's  Purpose  in  zvriting  this? 
What  has  he  told  in  order  to  accomplish  this  pur- 
pose? 

JJ^'rite  a  rcz'ieiv  one  paragraph  long  on  the  ex- 
tract from  "  Evangeline?' 

Read  th.e  foUozi'ing  paragraph  from  "The  Bi- 
ography of  a  Ciri.zcly"  and  try  to  discover  zi'hy  it 
does  not  sound  zveJl. 

"  The  Riography  of  a  Grizzly  "  was  written  by  Ernest 
Thompson  Seton.  It  is  the  story  of  a  bear  cub.  His 
mother  was  shot  when  he  was  a  cub.  He  was  left  friend- 
less and  homeless.  It  shows  how  full  of  tragedy  the  life 
of  a  wild  creature  may  be.  It  shows  how  ill  treatment  will 
make  a  bear  morose  and  savage.  It  show's  how  even  the 
most  ill-treated  creature  may  respond  to  fair  treatment 
and  become  gentle  and  tame. 

Tr\  different  zvays  of  comhi)iing  tlie  sentences 
and  notice  the  effect. 

Variety  in  Sentence  Form.  A  sentence  form 
should  suit  the  mood  of  the  writing.  In  describing 
a  fire  it  is  natural  to  use  short,  exclamatory  sen- 
tences. In  descril^ing  a  peaceful  twilight  scene,  the 
sentence  form  is  likely  to  be  long  and  musical.  The 
ear,  however,  grows  tired  of  one  sentence  form.  A 
variety  is  desirable  for  most  purposes,  therefore  a 


132  An  English  Gravimar 

pajKT  may  sometimes  be  imi)rovecl  liy  combining  the 
short  sentences.    Read  Exercise  u-B,  page  41. 

Read  your  paper,  asking  yourself  if  there  are  anv 
sentences  in  it  ichich  could  he  improved  by  being 
combined. 

Exercise  33 

Study  the,  sentences  in  this  exercise  and  state 
the  follozving  points: 

1.  Give  the  members. 

2.  State  the  kind  of  relation  existing  betzvecn 
the  thoughts  expressed  by  the  members. 

3.  Point  out  the  conjunction  which  expresses 
this  relation. 

4.  When  the  conjunction  is  not  present,  supply 
an  appropriate  one. 

5.  Notice  tJie  punctuation  betzveen.  the  members 
and  try  to  give  reasons  for  it. 

1.  Places  near  the  sea  are  not  extremely  cold  in  winter, 
nor  are  they  extremely  hot  in  summer. 

2.  The  man  takes  plenty  of  exercise ;  he  is  well. 

3.  We  must  conquer  our  pa'ssions  or  they  will  con- 
quer us. 

4.  People  in  the  streets  are  carrying  umbrellas ;  hence 
it  must  be  raining. 

5.  Neither  James  nor  John  had  his  lesson. 

6.  Solomon  was  both  learned  and  wise. 

7.  Though  it  is  deep,  yet  it  is  clear. 

8.  I  care  not  whether  it  rains  or  snows. 

9.  Clark's  men  waded  through  many  swamps  and 
reached  the  settlement  at  Vincennes. 

10.  The  house  was  built  upon  a  rock;  it  did  not  fall. 


The  Compound  Sentence  133 

11.  The  prodigal  robs  his  heirs:  the  miser  robs  him- 
self. 

12.  Mirth  should  be  the  embroidery  of  conversation,  but 
it  should  not  be  the  web. 

13.  1  was  told  to  go,  else  I  should  remain. 

14.  Be  industrious,  otherwise  you  will  come  to  grief. 

15.  Margaret  Fuller,  whom  the  waves  buried,  accom- 
plished much  good ;  but  she  was  taken  away  in  the  midst  of 
her  usefulness. 

16.  Ignorance  is  the  curse  of  God,  knowledge  the  wings 
with  which  we  fly  to  heaven. 

17.  The  conscious  water  saw  its  Lord  and  blushed. 

18.  The  aspen  heard  them  and  she  trembled. 

19.  There  is  much  that  is  deciduous  in  books,  but  all 
that  gives  them  a  title  to  rank  as  literature  in  the  highest 
sense  is  perennial. 

20.  I  do  not  like  to  say  it,  but  he  has  sometimes  smoth- 
ered the  child-like  simplicity  of  Chaucer  under  feather-beds 
of  verbiage. 

21.  In  peace  thou  art  the  gale  of  spring;  in  war  the 
mountain  storm. 

22.  O  dark  and  cruel  deep,  reveal 
The  secret  that  thy  waves  conceal ! 
And  ye  wild  sea-birds  hither  wheel 
And  tell  it  me ! 

23.  He  cast  ofif  his  friends  as  a  huntsman  his  pack, 
For  he  knew  when  he  pleased  he  could  whistle  them 

back.  — Goldsmith. 

24.  Zeal  and  duty  are  not  slow, 

But  an  occasion's  forelock  watchful  wait. 

— Shakespeare. 
55.  Earth  felt  the  wound,  and  Nature  from  her  seat, 
Sighing,  through  all  her  works  gave  signs  of  woe. 

— Milton. 


134  An  English  Granuiiar 

83.  Punctuation  of  the  Compound  Sentence. 
The  members  of  a  compound  sentence  may  be  sep- 
arated by  the  comma;  as,  Crafty  men  contemn 
studies,  simple  men  admire  them,  and  wise  men  use 
them. 

They  may  be  separated  by  the  semi-colon;  as, 
A  wise  man  seeks  to  shine  in  himself;  a  fool  to  out- 
shine others. 

They  may  be  separated  by  the  colon ;  as.  When 
a  man  has  nothing  good  to  say  of  his  neighbor,  he 
does  ivcll  to  he  silent:  fezv  follozv  this  precept. 

They  may  not  need  any  punctuation  between 
them ;  as,  /  zvas  told  to  go  or  I  should  remain. 

Punctuation  is  to  make  the  meaning  of  the 
sentence  clear,  and  the  tendency  in  modern  Eng- 
lish is  to  use  as  little  of  it  as  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  accomplish  this  result. 

If  we  examine  the  four  examples  above,  we  can 
see  that  punctuation  is  sometimes  made  necessary 
in  the  compound  sentence:  (i)  by  the  length  of 
the  members,  as  in  the  third  example;  (2)  by 
the  absence  of  the  conjunction,  as  in  the  second; 
(3)  by  interpunctuation,  punctuation  within  the 
members,  as  in  the  third;  or  (4)  by  the  remote- 
ness of  the  relation  between  the  thoughts  ex- 
pressed by  the  members,  as  in  the  second.  Every 
time  we  punctuate  a  compound  sentence,  we 
should  think  of  these  four  points: 

1.  The  length  of  the  members. 

2.  The  presence  or  absence  of  the  conjunction. 


The  Compound  Sentence  135 

3.  The  closeness  or  remoteness  of  the  relation  between 
the  thoughts. 

4.  Interpunctuation. 

Exercise  34 

Study  the  following  sentences  and  state: 

1.  The  members. 

2.  The  kind   of  relation  existing  hetzveen  the 
thoughts  expressed  by  the  members. 

3.  Gii'c  tJic  reasons  for  the  punctuation. 

1.  No  one  ought  to  wound  the  feelings  of  another,  nor 
should  one  insult  him. 

2.  Men  are  not  judged  by  their  looks,  habits,  and  ap- 
pearances;  but  they  are  judged  by  their  lives. 

3.  A  true  friend  will  give  counsel,  but  an  evil-minded 
person  will  deceive. 

4.  Stones  grow ;  plants  grow  ;  animals  grow,  feel,  and 
live. 

5.  Avoid  affectation  ;  it  is  a  contemptible  weakness. 

6.  Harbour  no  malice  in  thy  heart;  it  will  be  a  viper 
in  thy  bosom. 

7.  The   wise   man   considers    what    he   wants ;   the    fool 
what  he  abounds  in. 

8.  The  noblest  prophets  have  been  children  ;  thev  prac- 
tice no  deception. 

9.  The  mountains  rise  and  circling  oceans  flow. 

10.  Themistocles  was  cautious,  and  he  was  also  valiant; 
but  the  wisdom  of  the  serpent  and  the  courage  of  the  lion 
could  not  prevail  against  destiny. 

11.  The  hermit  sat  at  the  door  of  his  cave  and  thought 
upon  the  deep  things  of  life. 

12.  He  suffered,  but  his  pangs  are  o'er; 
Enjoyed,  but  his  delights  are  fled; 


13B  All  English  Grammar 

Had  friends,  his  friends  arc  now  no  more ; 
And  foes,  his  foes  are  dead. 

13.  Swift  to  the  breach  his  comrades  fly; 
"  Make  way  for  Hberty,"  they  cry ; 
And  through  the  Austrian  phalanx  dart 

As  rushed  the  spears  through  Arnold's  heart. 

14.  Leaves  have  their  time  to  fall. 

And  flowers  to  wither  at  the  north  wind's  breath, 
And  stars  to  set ;  but  all. 

Thou  hast  all  seasons  for  thine  own,  O   Death ! 

— Hemans. 

15.  Turn,  gentle  Hermit  of  the  Dale, 
And  guide  my  lonely  way 

To  where  your  taper  cheers  the  vale 

With   hospitable  ray.  — Goldsmith. 


Exercise  35 

Review  and  Work  in  Composition 

In  giving  a  complete  analysis  of  a  compound 
sentence,  or  telling  all  that  we  have  learned  about 
it,  notice  the  following  points: 

1.  Classify  the  sentence. 

a.  On  the  basis  of  chief  purpose. 

b.  On  the  basis  of  the  number  and  rela- 

tion of  the  thoughts  expressed. 

2.  Read  the  members. 

J.  State  the  kind  of  relation  existing  between 
the  thoughts  expressed  by  the  members. 

4.  Give  the  conjunctions. 

5.  Give  the  reasons  for  the  punctuation. 


The  Compound  Sentence  137 

6.  Analyze  each  rnemher. 

a.  Give  the  entire  subject. 

b.  Give  the  entire  predicate. 

c.  Give  the  entire  copula. 

d.  Give  the  principal  part  of  the  subject 

and  all  the  modifiers. 

e.  Give  same  of  predicate  and  copula. 

.  Analyze    the    sentences    belozv,    following    the 
above  outline: 

1.  Apply  yourselves  to  study;  it  will  redound  to  your 
honour. 

2.  Every  man  desires  to  live  long,  but  no  man  would 
be  old. 

3.  So  Heaven  decrees :    with  Heaven  who  can  contend  ? 

4.  Faithful  are  the  wounds  of  a  friend,  but  the  kisses 
of  an  enemy  are  deceitful. 

5.  A   professed    Catholic,   he    imprisoned   the    Pope ;   a 
pretended  patriot,  he  impoverished  the  country. 

6.  There  are  but  few  voices  in  the  land  but  many  echoes. 

7.  Any    nobleness    begins    at    once    to    refine    a    man's 
features,  any  meanness  or  sensuality  to  imbrute  them. 

8.  Few  and  short  were  the  prayers  we  said. 
And  we  spake  not  a  word  of  sorrow ; 

But  we  silently  gazed  on  the  face  of  the  dead 
And  we  bitterly  thought  of  the  morrow. 

9.  May  I  govern  my  passions  with  absolute  sway, 
And  grow  wiser  and  better  as  life  wears  away. 

—Pope. 

10.  Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 
And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air.  — Gray. 

11.  Upon  her  breast  a  sparkling  cross  she  wore. 
Which  Jews  might  kiss  and  infidels  adore; 


138  An  English  Grammar 

Her  lively  looks  a  sprightly  mind  disclose, 
Quick  as  her  eyes  and  as  unfixed  as  those : 
Favors  to  none,  to  all  she  smiles  extends ; 
Oft  she  rejects,  but  never  once  oflFends.        — Pof^e. 

12.  The  vine  still  clings  to  the  mouldering  wall, 
But  at  every  gust  the  dead  leaves  fall, 

— Lcngfellozv. 

13.  And  as  a  hare,  whom  hounds  and  horns  pursue. 
Pants  to  the  place  from  whence  at  first  he  flew, 

I  still  had"  hopes,  my  long  vexations  past. 
Here  to  return,  and  die  at  home  at  last. 

— Goldsmith. 

14.  Take  her  up  tenderly, 
Lift  her  with  care, 
Fashioned  so  slenderly, 

Young,  and  so  fair.  — Hood. 

15.  Come  as  the  winds  come,  when 
Forests  are  rended ; 

Come  as  the  winds  come,  when 

Navies  are  stranded.  — Scott. 

16.  Alas,  'tis  true  I  have  gone  here  and  there, 
And  made  myself  a  motley  to  the  view. 

Gored  mine  own  thoughts,  sold  cheap  what  is  most 
dear.  — Shakespeare. 

17.  Fond  fool!    six  feet  of  earth  is  all  thy  store, 
And  he  that  seeks  for  all  shall  have  no  more. 

—Pope. 

18.  This  is  the  state  of  man:    today  he  puts  forth 
Tine  tender  leaves  of  hope ;  tomorrow  blossoms. 
And  bears  his  blushing  honours  thick  upon  him  ; 
The  third  day  comes  a  frost,  a  killing  frost. 

— Shakespeare. 
TQ.  He  is  a  freeman  whom  the  truth  makes  free. 

And  all  are  slaves  beside. 
20.  And  neither  the  angels  in  heaven  above, 


The  Compound  Sentence  139 

Nor  the  demons  down  under  the  sea, 

Can  ever  dissever  my  soul  from  the  soul 

Of  the  beautiful  Annabel  Lee.  — Poe. 

21.  Night's  candles  are  burnt  out,  and  jocund  Day 
Stands  tiptoe  on  the  misty  mountain-tops. 

— Shakespeare. 

22.  This  should  have  been  a  noble  creature ;  he 
Hath  all  the  energy  which  would  have  made 
A  goodly  frame  of  glorious  elements, 

Had  they  been  wisely  mingled.        — Shakespeare. 

23.  But  look,  the  morn  in  russet  mantle  clad 
Walks  o'er  the  dew  of  yon  high   eastern  hill. 

— Shakespeare. 

24.  See  how  the  morning  opes  her  golden  gates 
And  takes  her  farewell  of  the  glorious  sun ! 

— Shakespeare. 

25.  I  saw  from  the  beach  where  the  morn  was  shining, 
A  bark  o'er  the  waters  move  gloriously  on  ; 

I  came  when  the  sun  o'er  that  beach  was  declining. 
The  bark  was  still  there,  but  the  waters  were  gone. 

— Moore. 

Work  in  Composition 

The  Rcz'iczc  ( Coutiniicd) 

Read  the  extract  about  "  The  Forest  Primeval" , 
page  /(V?. 

Jlliat  is  portrayed  JiereF  What  makes  tlie  poem 
beautiful?  Discuss  its  tJioui^Jit,  the  feeling^  that 
comes  over  you  iu  readiug  it  aud  the  pictures  sui^- 
i^ested  by  it. 

Outline  a  rei'iezv  of  "  The  1' or  est  Priuieval  "  by 
para 'graphs.    U^rite  a  reviczv  of  the  poem. 

Word  Study.     One  way  of  securing  a  pleas- 


140  An  English  Grammar 


&' 


ing  effect  in  an  English  paper  is  through  a  wise 
choice  and  a  correct  use  of  words.  Avoid  slang, 
commonplace  words  and  affectations.  For  most 
])urposes  many  is  better  than  lots,  angry  than  mad, 
several  than  quite  a  few,  and  aftracfiz'e,  interesting 
or  enjoyable  than  perfeetly  lovely. 

For  the  correction  of  common  errors,  master 
exercises  67,  81,  92,  106,  117,  119.^ 

Notice  the  effect  of  unnecessarily  repeating  the 
same  word  or  words  that  are  nearly  alike. 

The  day  will  soon  be  here  when  we  shall  spend 
a  pleasant  day  together.  This  zvriter  zvrites  inter- 
estingly. 

Read  your  paper.  Have  you  made  a  wise  choice 
of  words  f 


Chapter  XII 

THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE 

84.  The  Complex  Sentence  Defined.  A  com- 
plex sentence  is  a  sentence  which  expresses  one 
principal  thought  and  one  or  more  subordinate 
thoughts;  as,  Gold,  which  is  mined  in  Colorado,  is 
the  most  precious  of  metals. 

85.  Classes  of  the  Complex  Sentence.  Phe 
complex  sentence,  like  the  compound  sentence,  may 
have  all  the  elements  of  each  thought  expressed 
separately;  as,  The  book  zdiich  was  torn  was 
thrown  aside. 

We  call  this  kind  of  sentence  a  regular  com- 
plex sentence. 

A  regular  complex  sentence  is  a  complex  sen- 
tence in  which  all  the  elements  of  each  thought 
are  expressed  separately;  as,  Joseph,  who  heard 
the  call,  ran  to  the  rescue. 

We  often  have  a  complex  sentence  in  which 
some  of  the  elements  of  some  of  the  thoughts  are 
common  and  are  expressed  but  once;  as.  His 
brother  is  taller  than  he,  which  means,  His  brother 
is  taller  than  he  [is  tall]. 

This  kind  of  complex  sentence  we  call  an 
abridged  complex  sentence. 

{1413 


142  An  English  Grammar 

An  abridged  complex  sentence  is  a  complex 
sentence  in  which  the  common  elements  of  the 
thoughts  are  expressed  but  once;  as,  The  rock  is 
higher  than  I,  which  means,  Tlie  rock  is  higher  than 
I  [am  high]. 

86.  Words  Used  in  the  Complex  Sentence. 

The  same  kinds  of  words  are  used  in  the  complex 
sentence  as  we  found  in  the  compound,  and  they 
have  the  same  uses  and  modifiers.  Phrases  are  also 
the  same  as  in  the  simple  sentence  and  have  the 
same  uses.  We  have  now  to  learn  the  uses  of 
clauses  in  the  complex  sentence. 

87.  The  Substantive  Clause,  Usual  Form.    In 

the  sentence,  Weakness  is  your  excuse. 

The  word,  weakness,  is  the  subject  of  the  sen- 
tence. We  may  substitute  for  it  the  following 
clause:  That  you  are  weak.  The  sentence  then 
reads.  That  you  are  weak  is  your  excuse. 

The  clause.  That  you  are  zveak,  is  used  as  the 
subject  of  the  sentence. 

Exercise  36 

Now  study  the  sentences  in  this  exercise  in  this 
same  way,  noting  the  following  points  about  each: 

1.  Read  the  italicized  expression. 

2.  Give  its  exact  use  in  the  sentence. 

J.  Substitute  a  clause  for  the  italicized  ex- 
pression, making  the  sentence  complex. 


The  Complex  Sentence  ^^^ 

4.  State  the  exact  use  of  the  clause  which 
you  have  substituted. 

1.  The  result  was  the  signing  of  tJie  treaty. 

2.  They  asked  his  presence. 

^.  This  fact,  the  rotundity  of  the  earth,  is  beUeved  by 
all.  ^ 

4.  There  is  some  dispute  about  the  real  discoverer  of 
America. 

5.  We  are  desirous  of  yonr  success. 
t>.  They  insisted  on  your  remaining. 
7.  We  are  not  sure  of  his  success. 

88.  The  Uses  of  the  Substantive  Clause, 
Usual  Form,  in  the  Complex  Sentence.  From  a 
careful  study  of  the  sentences  above  we  should 
see  that  the  substantive  clause,  usual  form,  may 
be  tised  in  the  following"  wa}s  in  the  complex 
sentence • 

1.  As  the  subject  of  the  sentence;  as,  That  the 
earth  is  round  is  not  doubted. 

2.  As  the  predicate  of  the  sentence;  as,  Their 
demand  zvas  that  we  surrender. 

3.  As  an  appositive  modifier;  as,  The  truth,  that 
all  men  are  created  equal,  is  often  expressed. 

4.  Principal  part  of  a  prepositional  phrase;  as. 
Have  birds  any  sense  of  why  they  sing  ? 

5.  Direct  objective  modifier;  as,  JVe  hoped  that 
you  could  come. 

6.  Indirect  objective  modifier ;  as.  He  is  not  sure 
that  he  will  pass  in  his  work. 

7.  Ad\'erbial  objective  modifier;  as.  We  are  very 
sorry  that  you  have  failed. 


1-44  An  English  Grammar 

Exercise  37 

Study  the  sentences  in  this  exercise  carefully  and 
note  the  follozving  concerning  them: 
T.  Read  the  principal  clause. 
2.  Read  the  subordinate  clause, 
?.  CAve  the  use  of  the  subordinate  clause. 
4.  Note  and  explain  the  punctuation. 

*i.  What  you  say  is  of  little  consequence. 

2.  My  home  is  wherever  I  am  happy. 

3.  I  know  not  where  they  have  laid  him. 

4.  The  fact,  that  it  was  done  by  him,  is  apparent. 

5.  He  traded  with  what  capital  he  had. 

6.  When  letters  were  first  used  is  not  certainly  known. 

7.  A  peculiarity  of  English  is  that  it  has  so  many  bor- 
rowed words. 

8.  The  fact,  that  mold  is  a  plant,  is  interesting. 

9.  That  stars  are  suns  is  the  belief  of  astronomers. 

10.  Astronomers  believe  that  stars  are  suns. 

11.  The  belief  of  astronomers  is  that  stars  are  suns. 

12.  The  belief,  that  stars  are  suns,  is  held  by  astronomers. 

13.  That  the  caterpillar  turns  to  a  butterfly  is  a  curious 
fact. 

14.  The  thought,  that  we  are   spinning  around  the  sun 
some  twenty  miles  a  second,  almost  makes  one  dizzy. 

15.  We  are  quite  sorry  that  it  is  so. 

16.  He  was  afraid  that  he  should  fall. 

17.  We  are  not  certain  that  an  open  sea  surrounds  the 
pole. 

18.  That  we  were  unsuccessful  was  not  our  fault. 


*Note:  When  the  substantive  clause  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the 
sentence,  as  in  i  and  i8,  or  as  the  predicate  of  the  sentence,  as  in  2 
and  20.  the  principal  clause  is  the  entire  sentence.  In  all  other  cases 
the  principal  clause  may  be  separated  from  the  substantive  clause. 


The  Complex  Sentence  145 

19.  The   cry,   that   the    world    is   growing    worse,   comes 
from  a  pessimist. 

20.  His  request  was  that  we  should  be  present. 

Exercise  38. 

State  all  the  uses  of  the  substantive  clause,  usual 
form.     Write  one  original  example  of  each  use. 

Notice  the  punctuation  of  the  following  sen- 
tences: 

1.  The  fact,  that  eternal  vigilance  is  die  price  of  good 
English,  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  upon  pupils  in 
grammar. 

2.  It  was  evident  that  the  boy  had  failed. 

3.  Why  me  the  stern  usurper  spared,  I  know  not. 

4.  The  story  of  Washington's  hatchet,  it  is  now  be- 
lieved, is  untrue. 

5.  That  money  easily  earned  easily  goes,  goes  without 
saying. 

89.  Punctuation  of  the  Substantive  Clause, 
Usual  Form.  By  noticing  the  punctuation  of  the 
sentences  in  the  preceding"  exercises,  the  following 
principles  for  punctuating  the  substantive  clause, 
usual  form,  will  be  clear: 

1.  The  substantive  clause,  usual  form,  used  as 
an  appositive  modifier  is  usually  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  the  comma;  as,  The 
fact,  that  he  was  honest,  was  doubted  by  no  one. 

The  clause  which  is  explanatory  of  the  word,  it, 
however,  is  seldom  set  off  by  the  comma;  as.  It  is 
true  that  the  mistake  could  not  ha7'c  been  a7'oided. 

2.  When  the  substantive  clause,  usual  form, 


!-!-♦>  All  English  Grauiinar 

is  out  of  its  natural  order,  it  should  be  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  the  comma;  as, 
TJiat  the  stream  couhi  he  forded,  the  general  did  not 
doubt. 

3.  When  the  principal  clause  breaks  up  the 
substantive  clause,  usual  form,  it  should  be  sep- 
arated from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  the  com- 
ma; as,  The  subject  of  gramiuar,  it  is  nozu  thought, 
should  be  taught  inductively. 

4.  When  a  clause  ends  in  a  verb  and  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  same  verb  the  two  should  be  sep- 
arated by  the  comma;  ?iS,W  hat  ever  is,  is  right. 

90.  Substantive  Clause,  Usual  Form,  Defined. 
A  substantive  clause,  usual  form,  is  a  substantive 
clause  in  which  the  author  of  the  sentence  ex- 
presses his  own  thought  in  his  own  words;  as, 
/  can  see  that  you  are  in  earnest. 

91.  The  Direct  Quotation.  In  the  sentences 
which  follozv,  zvork  out  carefully  each  of  the  folloiv- 
ing  points: 

1.  State  tJie  principal  clause. 

2.  State  the  subordinate  clause. 

J.  State  the  use  of  the  subordinate  clause. 

4.  Note  and  explain  the  punctuation. 

5.  How  do  these  clauses  differ  from  those  in 

the  preceding  lists f 

I.  "  Mental  power  can  never  be  gained  from  senseless 
fiction,"  savs  a  certain  writer. 


The  Complex  Sentence  147 

2.  The  peacock  struts  about  saying,  "  What  a  fine  tail 
I  have !  " 

3.  Socrates's  greatest  saying  was,  "  Know  thyself." 

4.  Shakespeare's  metaphor,  "  Night's  candles  are 
burned  out,"  is  one  of  the  finest  in  literature. 

5.  The  essence  of  all  Webster's  great  speeches  is  this : 
"  Liberty  and  union,  now  and  forever,  one  and  inseparable !  " 

6.  "What  have  I  done?"  is  asked  by  the  knave  and 
the  thief. 

7.  Hamlet's  exclamation  was.  "  What  a  piece  of  work 
is  man !  " 

8.  Cries  of,  "  Long  live  the  King!  "  rent  the  air. 

9.  "  You  will,"  h'e  said,  "  be  well  satisfied  with  the 
change." 

10.  A  writer  says,  "  I  have  heard  more  than  one  person 
say,  '  I  am  thankful.'  " 

11.  I  will  ask  of  you,  "  What  can  you  do?  " 

12.  The    me?sage    ran    thus:      "England    expects    every 
man  to  do  his  duty." 

92.  Uses  of  the  Direct  Quotation  in  the  Com- 
plex Sentence.  We  have  seen  in  our  study  of  the 
preceding  list  of  sentences  that  a  direct  quotation 
may  be  used  in  the  complex  sentence  in  the  follow- 
ing ways: 

T.  Subject  of  the  sentence;  as,  "Love  thy  neigh- 
bor as  thyself,"  is  a  precept  not  easily  practiced. 

2.  Predicate  of  the  sentence;  as,  The  declaration 
is,  ''All  men  are  created  free  and  equal." 

3.  Appositive  modifier;  as,  We  do  well  to  keep 
in  mind  the  adage,  ''Procrastination  is  the  thief  of 
time." 

4.  Direct  objective  modifier;   as,   Lincoln  said, 


148  An  English  Grammar 

"The  people  are  not  akvays  right  hut  they  usually 
■wobble  right." 

5.  Principal  ])art  of  a  prepositional  phrase;  as, 
The  whole  duty  of  man  is  expressed  in,  ''Do  unto 
others  as  you  zvould  have  them  do  unto  you." 

Exercise  39 

Rewrite  the  follozviug  story  in  the  form  of  a  con- 
versation, using  direct  quotations: 

A  wolf  once  swallowed  a  bone  which  stuck  fast  in  his 
throat.  He  begged  his  neighbor,  the  crane,  to  remove  it  for 
him,  promising  her  a  great  reward.  This  she  willingly  under- 
took, and  because  her  beak  was  long,  she  removed  the  bone 
with  ease.  She  asked  for  her  reward,  but  the  wolf  only 
laughed  and  said  that  having  had  her  head  within  the 
jaws  of  a  wolf  and  safely  out  again  was  reward  enough. 

Write  one  original  example  of  each  use  of  the  di- 
rect quotation  in.  the  complex  sentence. 

Imagine  yourself  to  be  purchasing  some  article 
and  invent  the  conversation  that  might  take  place 
between  yourself  and  the  salesman,  using  the  direct 
quotation  in  its  various  forms. 

Find  all  the  direct  quotations  in  "  The  Beggar 
Maid",  on  page  11^.  Give  the  exact  use  of  each. 
Account  for  the  punctuation. 

93.  Punctuation  of  the  Direct  Quotation.   By 

observing-  the  punctuation  in  the  list  of  sentences  in 

Section  91,  we  may  state  the  following-  principles: 

I .  A  direct  quotation  should  begin  with  a  cap- 


The  Complex  Sentence  149 

ital  and  should  be  inclosed  in  quotation  marks; 

as,  '' HifcJi  your  zuagon  to  a  star,"  said  Emerson. 

2.  A  direct  quotation,  when  not  formally  in- 
troduced, should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence  by  the  comma;  as,  Franklin  said,  "A 
man  often  pays  too  v.uich  for  his  whistle." 

3.  A  direct  quotation,  formally  introduced, 
should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence 
by  the  colon;  as,  Holmes  once  used  the  following 
language:  ''Put  not  your  trust  in  money,  but  put 
your  money  in  trust." 

4.  A  direct  quotation  which  is  interrogative 
or  exclamatory  should  be  followed  by  its  appro- 
priate mark;  as,  Charles  Lamb,  reading  the  epi- 
taphs in  a  churchyard,  inquired,  "  Where  be  all  the 
bad  people  buried?"  "  Give  me  liberty  or  give  me 
death]"  exclaimed  Patrick  Henry. 

5.  A  direct  quotation  within  a  direct  quota- 
tion should  be  inclosed  in  single  quotation  marks ; 
as,  The  speaker  said,  "An  old  adage  says,  'Experi- 
ence is  a  hard  teacher.'" 

6.  When  a  direct  quotation  is  broken  up  by 
another  part  of  the  sentence,  each  part  of  the  di- 
rect quotation  should  be  inclosed  in  quotation 
marks;  as,  "The  Scotch,"  said  Burns,  "are  a  stub- 
born people." 

Exercise  40 

Study  the  following  sentences  carefully  and  note 
the  follozving  points: 


\ 


150  "     An  English  Grmnmar 

1.  Read  the  principal  clause. 

2.  Read  the  subordinate  clause. 

J.  Tell  what  kind  of  clause  the  subordinate 
clause  is. 

4.  Give  the  exact  use  of  the  subordinate 

clause. 

5.  Give 'reasons  for  the  capital  letters  and 

punctuation. 

1.  This  we  know,  that  our  future  depends  upon  our 
past. 

2.  The  project,  it  is  certain,  will  succeed. 

3.  He  said,  "  The  maxim,  '  A  fool  and  his  money  are 
soon  parted,'  is  many  times  exemplified." 

4.  In  Wnllace's  novel,  "  Ben  Hur,"  may  be  found  the 
following  words :  "  The  Hindoo  here  drew  a  long  sigh, 
as  he  said,  '  The  enemy  of  man  is  man,  my  brother.'  " 

5.  "  The  English."  said  Voltaire,  "  gain  two  hours  a 
day  by  clipping  words." 

6.  "  Gallop,"  gasped  Joris,  "  for  Aix  is  in  sight !  " 

7.  The  queen  said  repeatedly  with  a  firm  voice,  "  Into 
thy  hands,  O  Lord,  I  commend  my  spirit." 

8.  "  You  lazy  fellow ! "  cried  Hercules,  "  how  dare 
you  send  for  me  till  you  have  tried  to  do  without  me !  " 

9.  "  Fly,  Rebecca,  for  no  human  aid  can  avail  you," 
said  Ivanhoe. 

10.  Said  the  schoolmaster,  "  When  asked  about  Esau, 
the  pupil  said,  '  Esau  wrote  a  famous  book  of  fables  and 
sold  the  copyright  for  a  bottle  of  potash.'  " 

11.  What  teacher  of  rhetoric  has  not  sympathized  with 
the  delightful  Portia  in  "  The  Merchant  of  Venice ''  when 
she  says  with  a  sigh,  "  If  to  do  were  as  easy  as  to  know 
what  were  good  to  do,  chapels  had  been  churches  and  poor 
men's  cottages  princes'  palaces !  " 


The  Complex  Sentence  151 

12.  "  Truth  gets  well,"  says  a  certain  writer,  "  oven 
if  she  be  run  over  by  a  locomotive." 

13.  The  Mohammedans  say,  "  God  gave  two-thirds  of 
all  the  beauty  to  Eve." 

14.  We  daily  verify  the  saying,  "  Man's  extremity  is 
God's  opportunit}"." 

15.  The  principle  involved  in,  "Resistance  to  tyrants  is 
obedience  to  God,"  was  the  seminal  principle  of  the  Amer- 
ican Revolution. 

16.  The  Ram's  Horn  says,  "  A  self-made  man  likes  to 
boast  of  his  job." 

17.  One  historian  says,  "  If  we  track  Queen  Elizabeth 
through  her  tortuous  mazes  of  lying  and  intrigue,  the 
sense  of  her  greatness  is  almost  lost  in  a  sense  of  contempt." 

94.  Direct  Quotation  Defined.  A  direct  quo- 
tation is  a  substantive  clause  in  which  the  author 
of  the  sentence  expresses  the  exact  thought  of 
some  other  person  in  the  exact  words  of  that 
other  person;  as,  Some  one  has  truly  said,  "He 
that  would  govern  others  must  first  he  master  of 
himself." 

95.  The  Indirect  Quotation.  The  indirect 
quotation  is  also  a  kind  of  substantive  clause. 
What  difference  do  you  notice  between  the  follow- 

Direct  quotation.  "I,"  said  the  little  man,  "am 
the  King  of  the  Golden  River." 

Indirect  quotation.  Tlic  little  man  said  that  he 
was  the  King  of  the  Golden  River. 

Studv  the  following  sentences  carefully  and 
note  the  following  points: 


152  rUi  English  Grammar 

1.  The  principal  clause. 

2.  The  subordinate  clause. 

J.  TJie  exact  use  of  the  subordinate  clause. 
4.  The  difference  betzveen  the  subordinate 

clauses  and  the  other  substantive  clauses 

already  studied. 

1.  That  we  should  be  ready  to  march  at  dawn  was  the 
command  of  the  general. 

2.  The  general's  command  was  that  we  be  ready  to 
march  at  dawn. 

3.  The  command,  that  we  be  ready  to  march  at  dawn, 
was  given  by  the  general. 

4.  The  general  commanded  that  we  be  ready  to  march 
at  dawn. 

96.  The    Uses    of    the    Indirect    Quotation. 

From  the  study  of  the  preceding  sentences  we  may 
see  that  the  indirect  quotation  can  have  the  follow- 
ing uses: 

1.  Subject  of  the  sentence ;  as,  That  we  should 
be  prepared  on  all  our  lessons  was  the  thought  of 
the  teacher. 

2.  Predicate  of  the  sentence;  as,  The  teacher's 
thought  was  that  we  should  be  prepared  on  all 
our  lessons. 

3.  Appositive  modifier:  as,  The  thought,  that 
we  should  be  prepared  on  all  our  lessons,  was  ex- 
pressed by  the  teacher. 

4.  Direct  objective  modifier;  as,  The  teacher 
said  that  we  should  be  prepared  on  all  our  lessons. 

97.  The  Indirect  Quotation  Defined.    An  in- 


The  Complex  Sentence  153 

direct  quotation  is  a  substantive  clause  in  which 
the  author  of  the  sentence  expresses  in  his 
own  words  the  thought  of  some  other  person; 
as,  Grant  said  that  he  would  fight  it  out  on  that 
line  if  it  took  all  summer. 

The  punctuation  of  the  indirect  quotation  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  substantive  clause,  usual  form. 

Exercise  41 

Study  the  following  sentences  earefully  and 
note  the  follozving  points: 

1.  Read  the  principal  clause. 

2.  Read  the  subordinate  clause. 

J.   Tell  wJiat  kind  of  clause  the  subordinate 
clause  is. 

4.  Giz'c   the   exact   use   of   the   subordinate 

clause. 

5.  Verify   the  punctuation. 

1.  The  traveler  said  that  he  was  weary. 

2.  The  speaker  said  that  protection  was  a  failure. 

3.  Nathan  Hale's  only  regret  was  that  he  had  but  one 
life  to  give  to  his  country. 

4.  That  the  greatest  vice  of  American  writing  and  speak- 
ing is  a  .studied  want  of  simplicity,  was  the  thought  of 
Lowell. 

5.  Byron,  seeing  Moore  eating  an  under-done  beefsteak, 
asked  if  he  were  not  afraid  of  committmg  murder  after 
such  a  meal. 

6.  That  England  expected  every  man  to  do  his  duty 
was  the  word  which  was  passed  along  the  line. 

7.  Socrates  said  that  men   should  know  themselves. 


154  All  English  Gmnniiar 

98.  The  Adjective  Clause.  \\>  have  now  dis- 
covered all  the  kinds  of  substantive  clauses  used 
in  the  complex  sentence  and  we  have  seen  all  the 
uses  of  such  clauses.  Other  kinds  of  clauses  are 
found  in  the  complex  sentences,  as  we  may  see  by 
studying  the  following  sentence:  Mahomet,  the 
founder  of  the  faitJi  of  Islam,  was  born  in  Mecca. 

This  is  a  simple  sentence.  The  expression,  the 
founder  of  the  faith  of  Islam,  is  an  appositive  modi- 
fier of  the  word,  Mahomet.  It  does  not  narrow  or 
restrict  the  meaning  of  the  word,  Mahomet.  It 
simply  emphasizes  an  attribute  of  the  object  of 
thought  expressed  by  the  word.  We  can  change 
the  sentence  into  a  complex  sentence  by  making  a 
clause  out  of  this  appositive  modifier.  Mahomet, 
who  zvas  the  founder  of  the  faith  of  Islam,  zuas 
born  in  Mecca. 

The  principal  clause  is  the  expression,  Ma- 
homet zvas  born  in  Mecca.  The  subordinate  clause 
is  the  expression,  zvlio  zvas  the  founder  of  the  faith 
of  Islam.  It  is  used  as  a  descriptive  adjective  modi- 
fier of  the  word,  Mahomet.  Hence  we  call  this 
clause  a  descriptive  adjective  clause. 

The  word,  who,  has  two  uses  in  the  sentence. 

1.  It  is  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause. 

2.  It  expresses  the  relation  between  the  thought 
expressed  by  the  principal  clause  and  the  thought 
expressed  by  the  subordinate  clause.  We  call  this 
word,  zvho,  the  connective. 

Sometimes  the  adjective  clause  is  used  as  a  lim- 


The  Complex  Sentence  155 

iting  adjective  modifier  and  then  we  call  it  a  lim- 
iting adjective  clause;  as,  The  boys  who  are  tall 
may  pass  info  the  next  room. 

Exercise  42 

Study  tJie  following  simple  sentences  carefully: 

1.  Give  file  exact  use  of  each  italicised  ex- 

pression. 

2.  State  zvli ether   the  italicised   expression 

narrows  the  meaning  of  the  word  which 
it  modifies  or  simply  makes  prominent 
an  attribute  of  the  object  of  thought  ex- 
pressed by  it. 
J.  Expand  each  sentence  into  a  complex  sen- 
tence. 

4.  State  the  principal  clause. 

5.  State  the'  subordinate  clause. 

6.  Give  the  exact  use   of  the  subordinate 

clause. 

7.  Is  if  liiniting  or  descriptive? 

8.  Point  out  the  connective  and  give  all  its 

uses. 

1.  Sunderland's  crime  was  never  forgiven  by  James. 

2.  A  man  of  good  character  will  win  respect. 

3.  The  prisoner,  stupefied  -with  terror,  could  not  respond. 

4.  The  army,  conquered  at  Waterloo,  was  commanded 
by  Napoleon. 

6.  Solomon,  the  builder  of  the  Temple,  was  the  son  of 
David. 

7.  It  was  a  sight  to  gladden  the  heart. 


156  An  English  Grmnmar 

8.  Rice,   largely   consumed   by   the   natives   of  Eastern 
Asia,  requires  a  damp  soil. 

9.  Procrastination,  the  thief  of  time,  is  our  worst  enemy. 
10.  A    selfish    man,    the    ugliest    thing    upon   which    the 

angels  have  to  look,  is  a  disgrace  to  humanity. 

Exercise  43 

Study  the  follozving  sentences  and  state  clearly: 

1.  The  principal  cla^tse. 

2.  The  subordinate  clause. 

J.   The  exact  use  of  the  subordinate  clause. 

4.  Is  it  limiting ,  or  descriptive f 

5.  The  connective  and  all  its  uses. 

1.  God  rules  the  world,  which  he  created. 

2.  A  city  that  is  set  on  a  hill  cannot  be  hid. 

3.  The  man  who  conquers  selfishness  gains  in  breadth 
of  character. 

4.  The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them. 

5.  I   thrice  presented  him   a  kingly  crown,   which   he 
did  thrice  refuse. 

6.  My  father,  whom  all  loved,  was  fond  of  flowers. 

7.  The  girl  and  the  cat,  that  were  in  the  room,  were 
having  a  frolic. 

8.  He  purchased  such  books  as  were  wanted. 

9.  To  live  in  hearts  we  leave  behind  is  not  to  die. 

10.  There  is  not  a  man  here  but  knows  it. 

11.  There  is  no  fireside  but  has  one  vacant  chair. 

12.  As  many  as  received  him  to  them  gave  he  power. 

13.  Such  as  I  have,  give  I  unto  thee. 

14.  To  him  who  in  the  love  of  nature  holds  communion 
with  her  visible  forms,  she  speaks  a  various  language. 

15.  The  lever   which   moves   the   world's   mind    is   the 
printing  press. 


The  Complex  Sentence  157 

1 6.  The  Knights  of  the  Round  Table,  who  flourished 
in  the  reign  of  King  Arthur,  were  chivalrous  and  brave. 

17.  Margaret  Fuller,  whom  the  waves  buried,  was  a 
philanthropist. 

18.  The  author  whose  poem  was  read  was  present. 

19.  The  teacher  whose  example  is  good  will  be  re- 
spected by  his  pupils. 

99.  The  Adjective  Clause  Defined.  An  ad- 
jective clause  is  an  attributive  clause  which  is 
used  in  the  sentence  with  the  value  of  an  adjec- 
tive; as.  The  horse,  which  was  valuable,  zvas  lost  in 
the  zvoods. 

100.  The  Descriptive  Adjective  Clause  De- 
fined. A  descriptive  adjective  clause  is  an  ad- 
jective clause  which  is  used  as  a  descriptive  ad- 
jective modifier;  as,  Peniu  who  was  straightfor- 
ward in  his  dealings  with  men,  never  lost  a  friend. 

10 1.  The  Limiting  Adjective  Clause  Defined. 
A  limiting  adjective  clause  is  an  adjective  clause 
which  is  used  as  a  limiting  adjective  modifier;  as, 
Those  pupils  who  have  an  average  of  eighty  in  the 
work  of  the  term  may  be  excused  from  the  Unal  ex- 
amination. 

102.  The  Relative  Pronoun  in  the  Adjective 
Clause.  Tn  the  adjcclixc  clauses  so  far  studied, 
the  relative  pronoun  or  connective  has  had  one  sub- 
stantive tise  and  a  relational  use;  1)tit  in  the  sen- 


NoTE  :     Pupils  need  not  dwell   upon  descriplhc  and  limiiing  ad- 
jective clauses. 


15ii  .-1)1  English  Gram  mar 

tences  which  follow,  wc  shall  notice  that  it  has  also 
another  snhstantive  use. 

103.  Simple  and  Compound  Relative  Pro- 
nouns. In  the  sentence,  He  wlio  ivins  may  laiigJi, 
the  word,  He,  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause, 
He  may  langh.  The  word,  zvJio,  is  the  subject  of  the 
subordinate  clause,  zvJw  wins,  and  it  is  also  the  con- 
nective, expressing-  the  relation  between  the 
thought  expressed  by  the  principal  clause  and  the 
thought  expressed  by  the  subordinate  clause.  We 
see,  then,  that  the  expression.  He  who,  has  three 
uses  in  the  sentence.  Two  of  them  are  substantive 
uses  and  one  is  a  relational  use.  Now  if  we  sub- 
stitute the  word,  zvhoever,  for  the  expression,  He 
who,  making  the  sentence  read,  Whoever  zvins  may 
laiigli,  the  word.  Whoever,  will  have  these  same 
three  uses.  The  word,  JVJwever,  is  now  the  subject 
of  the  principal  clause,  Wlwcz-er  may  laugh.  It  is 
also  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause.  Whoever 
zvins.  It  also  expresses  the  relation  between  the 
thought  expressed  by  the  principal  clause  and  the 
thought  expressed  by  the  subordinate  clause. 

^^'hen  the  relative  pronoun  has  only  one  sub- 
stantive use  and  one  relational  use,  we  call  it  a 
simple  relative  pronoun;  but  when  it  has  two  sub- 
stantive uses  and  one  relational  use,  as  in  this 
sentence,  we  call  it  a  compound  relative  pronoun. 


The  Complex  Sentence  15i> 

Exercise  44 

Study    the   following   sentences   carefully    and 
state: 

1.  The  principal  clause. 

2.  The  subordinate  claiise. 

J.   TJie  exact  use  of  the  subordinate  clause. 

4.  The  exact  use  of  the  italicized  expression 

as  illustrated  in  Section  10^. 

5.  Substitute  one  word  for  the  italicized  ex- 

pression. 

6.  TJie  exact  u.ses  of  the  njord  zvhich   you 

substitute. 

1.  He  Zi'lio  runs  nia\-  read. 

2.  The  thing  zvhich  is  right  is  safe. 

3.  He  wants  anything  that  he  sees. 

4.  The  person  zehom  falsehood  pleases,  truth  ofifends. 

5.  Do  the  thing  that  is  right. 

6.  The  Lord  cha?teneth  any  person  -rehoin  he  loveth. 

7.  Any  person   whose  property  is  injurt-d  ma}'  recover 
damages. 

8.  The  person  zeho  keepeth  the  law  is  a  wise  son. 

9.  Judge  ye  the  thing  zvhich  I  saw 

10.   The  person  zvho  enters  here  should  have  a  pure  heart. 

Exercise  45 

Study    the    followiui^    sentences    carefully    and 
give: 

1.  I'hc  principal  clause. 

2.  'The  subordinate  clause. 

^.   'The  connective  and  all  its  uses. 


ICO  An  English  Grammar 

4.  The   expanded   expression    for   the   con- 
nective to  sho7v  more  clearly  its  uses. 

1.  Whoever  sees  not  the  sun  is  blind. 

2.  He  knows  whomever  he  has  once  seen. 

3.  Whoso  keepeth  the  law  is  a  wise  son. 

4.  Whatever  he  doeth  shall  prosper. 

5.  Whosoever  liveth  in  this  land  must  obey  the  laws. 

6.  Whosever. child  you  have  wronged  shall  be  avenged. 

7.  Whosesoever  faults  ye  forget  will  be  happy. 

8.  I  will  be  satisfied  with  whomsoever  you  may  appoint. 

9.  You  may  have  whichever  you  want. 

10.  Whatsoever  ye  shall  ask  I  will  do. 

1 1 .  The  child  does  whatever  he  pleases. 

12.  He  will  do  what  is  right. 

13.  You  may  select  whichsoever  you  desire. 

14.  What  he  says  is  true. 

15.  Turn  to  whosoever  shall  ask  alms  a  sympathetic  ear. 

16.  Into    whatsoever    ye    shall    enter,    inquire    who    is 
worthy. 

17.  Whoever  studies  will  learn. 

18.  Whoever  does  no  good  does  harm. 

19.  Whoever  brings  the  treasure   shall  receive  the  re- 
ward. 

104.  The  Relative  Pronoun  Defined.  A  rela- 
tive pronoun  is  a  pronoun  which  has  a  relational 
use  in  the  sentence;  as,  Hazvthorne,  who  was  a 
timid  man,  shunned  the  public  gase. 

105.  Classes  of  Relative  Pronouns.  We  have 
seen  from  our  study  of  the  preceding  sentences 
that  on  the  basis  of  use,  we  have  two  classes  of 
relative  pronouns,  simple  and  compound. 


The  Complex  Sentence  161 

1 06.  The  Simple  Relative  Pronoun  Defined. 
A  simple  relative  pronoun  is  a  relative  pronoun 
which  has  only  one  substantive  use;  as,  Burdette, 
who  was  fond  of  a  good  story,  had  a  fund  of  anec- 
dotes. 

107.  List  of  Simple  Relative  Pronouns.  The 
following  words  are  used  as  simple  relative  pro- 
nouns: Who  (with  its  other  forms,  zvhose  and 
whom),  which,  that,  as,  and  but.  These  words  are 
not  always  relative  pronouns.  They  are  relative 
pronouns  only  when  they  have  a  relational  use  in 
the  sentence. 

The  use  of  the  words,  hit,  and  as,  as  relative 
pronouns  is  not  very  common.  The  word,  but,  is 
a  relative  pronoun  only  when  it  expresses  the  rela- 
tion between  thoughts  of  unequal  rank  and  is 
equivalent  in  meaning  to  the  words,  that  not;  as, 
There  is  not  a  man  here  but  knows  it,  is  equal  to, 
There  is  not  a  man  here  that  docs  not  knozv  it. 

The  word,  as,  is  a  relative  pronoun  only  when 
some  such  word  as,  such,  many,  or  same  is  its 
antecedent  or  a  part  of  its  antecedent;  as,  He 
bought  such  books  as  were  needed.  These  are  the 
same  as  zve  have. 

108.  Kinds  of  Objects  Expressed  by  Relative 
Pronouns,  i .  The  word,  zvho,  expresses  persons  or 
personified  things;  as,  The  father,  who  was  away 
from  home,  zvas  quickly  summoned .  The  lion,  who 
had  taken  his  seat  on  the  throne,  addressed  his  sub- 
jects in  diplomatic  language,. 


1^*^  An  Eiii^lish   Graiuinar 

2.  The  word,  ivJiicJi,  expresses  inanimate  ob- 
jects, lower  animals,  persons  taken  collectively,  and 
sometimes  small  children;  as,  Tlie  house,  which  zvas 
large,  zvas  burned,  llie  horse  which  zvas  sold  is 
black.  The  crozvd,  which  zvas  large,  beeame  noisy. 
The  child,  which  zvas  in  its  cradle,  zvas  awake. 

3.  The  word,  that,  may  express  inanimate  ob- 
jects, lower  animals,  persons,  or  any  two  or  all  of 
these  taken  tooether;  as,  The  guns  that  zvere  near 
zvere  sei.ccd  by  the  soldiers.  The  dogs  that  zve  sazv 
zvere  zvell  trained.  The  men  that  zve  met  zvere  po- 
lite. The  men,  dogs,  and  gnus  that  zve  sazv  at  the 
station  zvere  on  their  way  West. 

4.  The  words,  as  and  but,  may  express  the  same 
kinds  of  objects  as  the  word,  that. 

109.  The  Compound  Relative  Pronoun  De- 
fined. A  compound  relative  pronoun  is  a  relative 
pronoun  which  has  two  substantive  uses  in  the 
sentence;  as.  Whoever  zvorks  zvill  succeed. 

no.  How  the  Compound  Relative  Pronouns 
are  Formed.  I'he  compound  relative  pronouns 
are  formed  by  adding  the  words,  ez'cr,  so,  or  soever, 
to  the  following  forms  of  the  simple  relative  pro- 
nouns:   zvho,  zvhose,  zvhom  and  zvhich. 

III.  List  of  Compound  Relative  Pronouns. 

This  would  give  us  the  following  list:  whoever, 
zvhoso,  zvhosoever,  zvhosever,  zvhosesoever,  zvhoni- 
ever,  zvhomsoever,  whichever,  zvhichsoezjer. 


The  Co)nple,v  Sentence  1<>3 

Of  these  fornis,  only  the  following  are  niiicli 
used  in  modern  English.  wJioevcr,  zvhosever, 
zvhomei'cr,  and  zvhichever. 

112.  The  Word,  What,  The  word,  zvhaf,  when 
a  relative  pronoun,  is  always  compound;  as, 
What  ye  seek  ye  shall  -find. 

To  it  may  be  added  the  words,  ever,  so,  and  so- 
cver,  to  form  other  compound  relative  ])ronouns. 
Of  these,  only  the  form,  zvhafever,  is  much  used  in 
modern  English. 

113.  The  Proper  Use  of  the  Forms  of  the 
Word,  Whoever*  Whether  we  use  whoever, 
zvh.osei-^er,  or  ivhomever  in  expressing  a  thought,  de- 
pends upon  the  use  of  the  word  in  the  subordinate 
clause.  The  form  of  the  v^ord  must  agree  with  its 
use  in  the  subordinate  clause;  as,  You  may  invite 
whomever  you  choose.  You  may  invite  whoever 
zvill  come. 

Exercise  46 

Fill  the  follozi)ing  blanks  zjuith  the  proper  form 
of  the  compound  relaiiz'c  pronoun,  whoever: 

1.  comes  will  be  welcome. 

2.  you  suggest  will  be  selected. 

3.  He  knows  he  has  met. 

4.  The  boy  takes  pencil  he  can. 

5.  The  old  lady  asked  she  met. 

6.  The  man  put  the  question  to  appeared. 

7.  We  like  flatters  us. 

8.  We  welcomed  came. 


164  An  English  Grammar 

g.  reads  much  will  be  well  informed. 

10.  I  congratulate  succeeds. 

114,  The  Simple  Conjunctive  Adverb  in  the 
Adjective  Clause.  We  have  found  so  far  that  the 
connective  in  the  adjective  clause  may  be  a  simple 
or  a  compound  relative  pronoun.  We  are  now  to 
find  that  it  may  also  have  another  kind  of  connective. 

In  the  sentence,  Youth  is  the  time  at  wJiich  the 
seeds  of  character  arc  sozvn,  the  expression,  at 
which,  in  the  adjective  clause,  at  zuhich  the  seeds  of 
character  are  sown,  has  two  uses.  It  is  an  adverbial 
modifier  of  the  word,  sozvn,  expressing  the  adverbial 
idea  of  time.  Then,  the  word,  zvhich,  is  a  relative 
pronoun,  which  expresses  the  relation  between  the 
thought  expressed  by  the  principal  clause  and  the 
thought  expressed  by  the  subordinate  clause.  The 
expression,  at  zvhich,  then,  has  one  adverbial  use 
and  one  connective  use. 

We  may  substitute  the  word,  zvhen,  for  the  ex- 
pression, at  zvhich,  making  the  sentence  read.  Youth 
is  the  time  zvhen  the  seeds  of  character  are  sown. 
The  word,  zvhen,  will  then  have  the  same  two  uses 
as  the  expression,  at  zvhich.  It  is  an  adverbial 
modifier  of  the  word,  sown,  in  the  subordinate 
clause,  expressing  the  adverbial  idea  of  time.  It 
also  expresses  the  relation  between  the  thought 
expressed  by  the  principal  clause  and  the  thought 
expressed  by  the  subordinate  clause. 

We  call  such  a  word  a  simple  conjunctive  ad- 
verb. 


The  Complex  Sentence  165 

Exercise  47 

Study  the  following  sentences  and  give: 

1.  The  principal  clause. 

2.  The  subordinate  clause. 

J.  TJie  exact  use  of  the  subordinate  clause. 

4.  The  exact  uses  of  the  italicised  expres- 

sion. 

5.  A   zvord  zvhich  may  be  substituted  for 

the  italicised  expression. 

6.  The  exact  uses  of  the  word  substituted. 

1.  This  is  the  place  at  zvhich  the  oranges  are  sold. 

2.  I  saw  the  city  in  ivhich  Longfellow  lived. 

3.  The  place  to  zvhich  she  fled  is  unknown. 

4.  I  know  a  bank  on  zvhich  the  wild  thyme  grows. 

5.  You  take  the  means  by  which  I  live. 

6.  This  is  the  arrow  zi'ith  zvhich  he  killed  Cock  Robin. 

7.  This  is  the  house  from  zvhich  Arnold  fled. 

8.  I  know  the  place  of  zvhich  you  speak. 

9.  I  do  not  like  the  platform  on  zvhich  they  stand. 
10.  The  principle  on  zvhich  he  acts  is  unjust. 

Exercise  48 

Study  the  follozving  sentences  and  give: 

1.  The  principal  clause. 

2.  The  subordinate  clause. 

^.  The  use  of  the  subordinate  clause. 
4.  The  connective  word  and  all  its  uses. 

1.  We  came  unto  the  land  whither  thou  sentcst  us. 

2.  I   have  shaken  off  the   regal  thoughts  wherewith  I 
reigned. 

3.  The    play's   the   thing   wherein    I'll   catch    the    con- 
science of  the  king. 


166  An  Eiis^lish   Gyajiniia)' 

4.  It  was  a  time  when  men's  hearts  were  tried. 

5.  The  place  where  he  fell  is  unknown. 

6.  He  would  g^ive  the  duke  no  reason  why  he  followed 
a  losing  suit. 

7.  Mark  those  laws  whereby  the  universe  is  conducted. 

8.  A  depot  is  a  place  where  stores  are  kept, 

9.  A  verb  is  a  word  whereby  the  chief  action  of  the 
mind  is  expressed, 

10.  The  valley  of  Chamouni  is  a  place  where  the  traveler 
loves  to  linger  for  days  and  even  for  weeks. 

A  conjunctive  adverb  is  an  adverb  which  has 
a  relational  use;  as,  U'c  came  to  a  place  where 
the  I'oads  crosscil. 

115.  The  Simple  Conjunctive  Adverb  De- 
fined. A  simple  conjunctive  adverb  is  a  conjunc- 
tive adverb  which  has  only  one  adverbial  use;  as, 

Tin's  is  tJic  place  where  7ue  zvere  to  meet. 

116.  Connectives    of    the    Adjective    Clause. 

We  have  now  found  that  the  adjective  clause  may 
have  three  kinds  of  connectives:  the  simple  rela- 
tive pronoun,  the  compound  relative  pronoun, 
and  the  simple  conjunctive  adverb.  It  can  have 
no  others.  These  connectives  can  never  be  used 
in  any  other  kind  of  clause. 

117.  List    of    Simple    Conjunctive    Adverbs. 

The  following"  words  may  be  used  as  simple  con- 
junctive adverbs  but  they  are  not  always  so  used: 
where.  zvJien,  zvherezvith,  zvhereon,  zvhence,  zvhere- 
by,  zvhither,  zvherein,  zvhy,  zvhilc,  zvherefrom. 


The  Complex  Sentence  !♦>" 

Exercise  49 

Use  each  of  the  zvords  in  the  preceding  list  as 
simple  conjunctive  adverbs.    Write  your  sentences. 

118.  Punctuation  of  Adjective  Clause.  The 
descriptive  adjective  clause  should  be  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  the  comma;  as, 

Harry,  zvho  thrciv  the  stone,  did  not  knozv  that  it 
had  struck  the  zvindozv. 

Work  in  Composition 

Description 
THE  k.\(;lr 

He  clasps  the  eras;-  with  crooked  hands ; 
Close  to  the  sun  in  lonely  lands. 
Rino^Vl  with   the  azure  world,  he   stands. 

The  wrinkled   sea  beneath  him   crawls : 
He  watches   from  his  mountain  walls. 
And  like  a  thunderbolt  he  falls. 

— Alfred.    Lord    Tennyson. 

I. 

JVhat  has  Tennyson  pictured  here?  Upon  zvhat 
does  your  interest  centre/  What  are  the  sur- 
roundings/ I  That  is  the  general  impression  left, 
upon  yon? 

Purpose  of  Description.  A  descrii)ti()n  aims 
to  prescnl  a  picture  to  tlic  mind. 

Write  a  description  of  the  scene  suggested  h\ 


168  An  English  Grammar 

tJic  poem.    Xoficc  flic  feiise  of  the  I'erb  in  the  poem. 
I  \s-e  the  same. 

Read  your  paper,  asking  yourself  zvhetJier  or 
not  \<ou  have  given  a  elear  and  definite  pieture,  sucli 
a  one  as  an  artist  eonld  paint.  Study  your  sentences 
and  words  in  order  to  improve  them. 

Cattle  fed. , 

A  shepherd  watched  his  sheep. 

Children  played. 

The  car  rattled. 

The  en,8,ine  whistled. 

A  rohin  sang". 

What  scf'ings  do  you  tJiink  of  for  tlie  aboir  ac- 
tions^ 

Write  a  description  one  sentence  long  of  any 
of  tJie  above  actions.  Let  your  description  sliozv 
the  time,  place  and  occasion  of  tlie  actions. 

If  the  sentences  in  the  poem  called  "  The  Eagle  " 
were  stripped  of  their  modifiers,  they  would  read 
like  this:  ''He  clasps  the  crag".  He  stands.  The 
sea  crawls.  He  watches.  He  falls."  If  this  sen- 
tence. "Near  the  little  waterfall,  darting  hither  and 
thither  among  the  trees,  birds  were  flying,"  were 
stripped  of  its  modifiers,  we  w^ould  have  this  sen- 
tence: "Birds  were  flying."  Notice  how  nnich  can 
be  added  to  a  sentence  by  its  modifiers. 

Read  Chapter  J^IJI,  Sections  4^  to  4/,  notiiig 
hozv  many  ideas  may  be  expressed  by  the  modifiers 
in  a  sentence. 

Use  of  Modifiers  in  a  Sentence.     The  mod- 


The  Complex  Sentence  l^^f* 

ifiers  in  a  sentence  help  largely  to  give  the  sentence 
its  picture  quality. 

Read  xoiir  descripfious.  Hare  you  made  clear 
and  interesting  pictures?  Have  you  kept  them  one 
sentence  long  and  not  loosely  joined  independent 
thoughts  by  and'^ 

11- 

A  Lonely  Lighthouse. 

A  Gathering  Storm. 

A  Flower  Garden. 

A  Street  Alusician. 

Crossing  the  Prairie. 

A  Ball  Game. 

JVhat  pictures  are  suggested  by  these  topics? 

J  J' rite  a  description  one  sentence  long  on.  any 
one  of  the  aboT'C  topics.  See  that  you  ha%'e  but  one 
main  thought  in  the  description  atid  that  is  kept 
until  the  end  of  the  sentence.  See  page  14^=,  for 
punctuation. 

Variety  in  Sentence  Arrangement.  X'ariety 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  a  sentence  is  de- 
sirable. One  way  of  securing"  variety  is  sometimes 
to  hold  the  main  thought  of  a  sentence  until  the 
end.  Example,  "High  in  the  Alps  in  a  little  cot- 
tage near  which  were  singing  pines,  little  Heide 
Ji'i'cd  with  her  grandfather." 

iig.  The  Adverbial  Clause.  Resides  the  sub- 
stantive and  the  adjective  clauses,  we  have  yet  an- 
other kind  of  clause  which  is  used  in  the  complex 


1 ' "  An  English  Grammar 

sentence,  as  we  may  notice  by  studying  the  sen- 
tences which  follow.  In  the  sentence,  Concentrate 
your  attention  at  the  time  at  zvhich  you  study,  the 
expression,  at  the  time,  is  an  adverbial  modifier  of 
the  word,  concentrate,  expressing  the  adverbial 
idea  of  time.  The  expression,  at  which,  is  an  ad- 
verbial modifier  of  the  word,  study,  expressing  the 
adverbial  idea  of  time.  The  word,  zvhich,  is  a 
simple  relative  pronoun,  which  expresses  the  rela- 
tion between  the  thought  expressed  by  the  principal 
clause  and  the  thought  expressed  by  the  subordi- 
nate clause.  This  expression,  at  the  time  at  which, 
then,  has  three  uses.  Two  of  them  are  adverbial 
and  one  is  a  relational  use. 

We  may  substitute  for  this  expression,  the  one 
word,  zvhen,  making  the  sentence  read,  Concentrate 
your  attention  ivlien.  you  study. 

The  principal  clause  is  now  the  expression,  Con- 
centrate your  attention.  The  subordinate  clause  is 
the  expression,  zvhen  yon  study.  It  is  an  adverbial 
modifier  of  the  word,  concentrate,  expressing  the 
adverbial  idea  of  time.  This,  then,  is  an  adverbial 
clause. 

The  connective  is  the  word,  when,  and  since  it 
takes  the  place  of  the  expression,  at  the  time  at 
which,  in  the  other  sentence,  it  must  have  the  same 
uses.  It  is  an  adverbial  modifier  of  the  word,  con- 
centrate, in  the  principal  clause,  exi:)ressing  the  ad- 
verbial idea  of  tim.e.  It  is  also  an  adverbial  modifier 
of  the  word,  study,  in  the  suljordinate  clause,  ex- 


TJic  Complex  Sentence  171 

pressing  the  adverbial  idea  of  time.  It  also  ex- 
presses the  relation  between  the  thought  ex- 
pressed by  the  principal  clause  and  the  thought 
expressed  by  the  subordinate  clause. 

Exercise  50 

Study  the  following  sentences  and  give: 

1.  The  exact  uses  of  the  italicized  expres- 

sions. 

2.  A  zvord  zvhich  may  he  substituted  for  the 

italicized  expression. 
?.  The  principal  clause  after  the  zvord  is  sub- 
stituted. 

4.  The  subordinate  clause. 

5.  The  kind  of  subordinate  clause. 

6.  Its  use. 

7.  The  connective  01    the  zvord  substituted 

and  all  its  uses. 

1.  hnprove  your  moments  during  the  time  in  ivhicJi  you 
are  in  school. 

2.  Swiftly    olidc   the   hours   at   tJie    time   at   xvhich  the 
heart  is  young. 

3.  Smooth    runs   the  water  at   the  place   at   ivhich   the 
brook  is  deep. 

4.  At  the  time  at  which  he  slept,  she  over  him  would 
spread  his  mantle.  \ 

5.  He  sleeps  at  the  place  at  zdiich  night  overtakes  him. 

6.  The  boy  does  in  the  manner  in  which  he  pleases. 

7.  lie  became  humbler  ///  the  degree  in  which  he  grew 
wiser. 


172  An  English  Grammar 

8.  Truth  is  strange  in  a  degree  in  which  fiction  is  not 
strange. 

9.  In  the  manner  in  zv^hich  the  twig  is  bent  the  tree 
is  incHned. 

10.  At  the  time  at  zvhich  Raleigh  was  launching  paper 
navies,  Shakespeare  was  stretching  his  baby  hands  for  the 
moon. 

'''120.  The  Compound  Conjunctive  Adverb 
Defined.  This  kind  of  connective  which  we  have 
been  substituting  in  the  preceding  sentences  is 
called  a  compound  conjunctive  adverb. 

A  compound  conjunctive  adverb  is  a  con- 
junctive adverb  which  has  two  adverbial  uses;  as, 
TJie  people  stood  when  iJie  king  entered. 

Exercise  51 

Study  the  following  sentences  and  give: 
The  principal  clause. 
The  subordinate  clause.  ■ 
The  kind  of  subordinate  clause. 
Its  exact  use. 
The  connective  and  all  its  uses. 


1.  Gather  dewdrops  while  they  sparkle. 

2.  Peace  rules  the  day  when  reason  rules  the  hour. 

3.  Master,  I  will  follow  thee  whithersoever  thou  goest. 

4.  When  Greeks  joined  Greeks,  then  began  the  tug  of 


war. 


Note  :  The  expressions  most  frequently  used  as  compound  con- 
junctive adverbs  are  the  following:  when,  where,  while,  as,  whither, 
whence,  then — when,  where — there,  whenever,  zvherever,  zuhereso- 
ever,  whithersoever,  and  whensoever. 


The  Complex  Sentence  173 

5.  Whitlier  I  go,  ye  cannot  come. 

6.  When  the  heart  beats  no  more,  then  the  hfe  ends. 

7.  In  Britain  tlie  conqnered  race  became  as  barbarous 
as  the  conquerors  were. 

8.  Death  itself  is  not  so  painful  as  is  this  sudden  horror 
and  surprise. 

9.  He  walked  among  us  as  an  upright  man. 

10.  The  train  started  as  we  got  aboard. 

11.  As  heroes  think,  so  thought  the  Bruce. 

12.  The  earlier  you  rise  the  better  your  nerves  will  bear 
study. 

13.  Pride  may  be  pampered  while  the  flesh  grows  lean. 

14.  They  are  better  than  we  had  expected. 

15.  Success  will  come  when  it  is  earnestly  sought. 

16.  As  the  President  passed,  the  children  waved  flags. 

17.  When  the  sun  shines,  the  mist  clears  away. 

18.  As  the  soldiers  marched  by,  the  people  waved  flags. 

19.  W'hen  the  time  comes,  people  will  be  surprised. 

20.  This  man  hoped  when  others  despaired. 

21.  The  people  shouted  when  they  sa.v  the  flag. 

22.  The  ^.eart  is  brave  when  life  is  young. 

23.  Joy  makes  sunshine  wherever  he  goes. 

From  your  study  of  these  sentences,  make  a 
complete  list  of  compound  conjunctive  adverbs. 

121.  The  Pure  Subordinate  Conjunction.     Tii 

the  sentence,  /  left  before  the  sun  rose,  the  principal 
clause  is  the  expression,  /  left.  The  subordinate 
clause  is  the  exprfession,  before  th.e  sun  rose.  It  is 
an  adverl)ial  modilier  of  the  word,  left,  hence  it  is 
an  adverbial  clause. 

The   connective   is   the   word,   before:  hut   this 
word  has  no  adverbial  use.     No  expanded  expres- 


174  An  English  Granimur 

sion  can  be  substituted  for  it.  It  has  just  the  one 
use ;  namely,  it  expresses  the  relation  between  the 
thought  expressed  by  the  j^rincipal  clause  and  the 
thought  expressed  by  the  subordinate  clause.  We 
call  such  a  connective  a  pure  subordinate  con- 
junction. 

Exercise  52 

We  must  be  careful  to  distinguish  between  the 
pure  subordinate  conjunction,  which  always  ex- 
presses relation  betzveen  thoughts  of  unequal  rank, 
and  the  preposition,  zvhich  always  expresses  rela- 
tion between  ideas  of  unequal  rank. 

Study  the  following  sentences  and  give: 

1.  The  class  of  the  sentence  on  basis  of  num- 

ber and  relation  of  thoughts  expressed. 

2.  The  principal  clause. 

J.  The  subordinate  clause. 

4.  The  connective,  and  state  its  exact  use. 

1.  I  came  before  your  recess  time. 

2.  I  came  before  you  had  recess. 

3.  George  Washington  died  after  the  accomplishment  of 
his  great  work. 

4.  George  Washington  died  after  his   great  work   was 
accomplished. 

5.  You  should  drink  from  the  fountain  of  knowledge 
ere  your  departure. 

6.  You  should  drink  from  the  fountain  of  knowledge 
ere  you  depart. 

7.  You  may  wait  until  the  arrival  of  the  train. 

8.  You  may  wait  until  the  train  arrives. 


The  Complex  Sentence  175 

122.  The  Pure  Subordinate  Conjunction  De- 
fined. A  pure  subordinate  conjunction  is  a  con- 
junction which  expresses  the  relation  between 
thoughts  of  unequal  rank;  as,  If  yoii  ivish  it,  I  will 
retire. 

Exercise  53 

Study  the  following  sentences  and  give: 

1.  The  principal  clause. 

2.  The  subordinate  clause. 

5.  The  kind  of  subordinate  clause. 

4.  The  exact  use  of  the  subordinate  clause. 

5.  The  connective  and  all  its  uses. 

I.  He   rushes   to   bailie   as   if  he   were  summoned   to  a 
banquet. 

Explanation:  If  the  senlence  were  expanded,  it  would  read, 
He  rushes  to  battle  as  lie  ivould  rush  if  he  were  summoned  to  a 
banquet.  The  principal  clause  is  the  expression,  lie  rushes  to 
battle.  The  subordinate  clause  is  the  expression,  as  he  zvuiild  rush 
if  he  zccre  summoned  to  a  banquet.  It  is  an  adverbial  clause,  ex- 
pressing the  adverbial  idea  of  manner.  The  connective  is  the 
word,  as,  and  it  is  a  compound  conjunctive  adverb.  It  is  an  ad- 
verbial modifier  of  the  word  rushes,  in  the  principal  clause  and  an 
adverbial  modifier  of  the  expression,  zvould  rush,  in  the  subordinate 
clause,  expressing  the  adverbial  idea  of  manner.  It  also  expresses 
the  relation  between  the  thought  expressed  by  the  principal  clause 
and  the  thought  expressed  by  the  subordinate  clause.  There  is 
also  a  subordinate  clause  in  the  subfirdinate  clause;  namely,  ;'/  he 
were  summoned  to  a  banquet.  It  is  an  adverbial  clause  express- 
ing the  adverbial  idea  of  condition.  The  connective  is  the  word, 
if,  and  it  is  a  pure  subordinate  conjunction;  that  is,  it  has  no 
other  use  except  to  express  the  relation  between  the  thought  ex- 
pressed by  the  principal  clause,  and  the  thought  expressed  by  the 
subordinate  clause. 

2.  Our   friends  visited  us  as  frequently  as  they  could, 

3.  1  will  run  as  far  as  God  has  any  "ground. 

4.  Oft  as  the  mornini.c  dawns  should  gratitude  arise. 


^'^'^  An  English  Grammar 

5.  Since  you  insist  upon  it,  T  consent. 

6.  His  head  ached  so  that  he  could  hardly  study. 

7.  The   lesson    was   interesting   for   the   children   were 
attentive. 

8.  Our  fathers  sought  these  shores  in  order  that  they 
might  escape  from  persecution. 

9.  In  case  that  we  are  beaten,  we  shall  retreat. 
10.  Cursed  be  I  that  I  did  so. 

I  I.  Though  you  pav  him,  he  will  not  serve  you. 

12.  If  the  War  of  the  Roses  did  not  utterly  destroy 
England's  freedom,  it  arrested  its  progress  for  a  hundred 
years. 

13.  Obey  the  law  of  nature  lest  thou  become  unnatural. 

14.  Whereas  the  Embargo  Act  injured  the  commerce 
of  America,  it  was  repealed. 

15.  Except  you  travel  by  night.  >ou  will  find  the  journey 
unpleasant. 

17.  Unless  you  are  competent  seek  no  promotion. 

18.  Ye  know  the  heart  of  a  stranger,  seeing  ye  were 
strangers  in  a  strange  land. 

19.  That  is  strange,  notwithstanding  he  is  your  neighbor. 

20.  I  must  go  whether  the  train  goes  or  not. 

21.  Although  the  wound  soon  healed  again,  vet,  as  he 
ran,  he  yelled  for  pain. 

22.  Milton  almost  requires  a  service  to  be  played  before 
you  enter  upon  him. 

23.  The  waves  of  sound  do  not  move  so  rapidh-  as  the 
waves  of  light. 

24.  The  more  we  know  of  ancient  literature,  the  more 
v.-e  are  struck  with  its  modernness. 

Note:  The  following  expressions  are  those  which  are  most 
trequenlly  used  as  pure  subordinate  conjunctions:  before,  after 
since  ere,  lill,  that,  for,  if,  zvhcreas,  so,  save,  except,  'unless 
provided,  seeing,  zvhether,  alt/ioiigh—yet,  even— though,  in  order 
that,   m   case   that,  etc. 


The  Complex  Sentence  177 

Exercise  54 

A  review  of  the  complex  and  compound  sen- 
tences; 

Analyze  flic  sentences  helmv  according  to  the 
following  form: 

1.  Classify  tJic  sentence  on  tzvo  bases,  stat- 

ing the  basis  in  each  case. 

2.  Give  the  principal  parts  of  it. 

J.  Give  the  principal  zvord  in  each  part  and 

all  its  modifiers. 
4.  Give  the  modifiers  in  the  modifiers. 

T.  He  who  knows  only  liis  own  side  of  the  case  knows 
little  of  that. 

2.  When  we  go  forth  in  the  morning,  we  lay  a  mould- 
ing hand  upon  our  destiny. 

3.  Knowledge  and   timber  should   not  be   used   much 
until  they  are  seasoned. 

4.  Whoever  seeks  the  good  of  others  will  himself  be 
blessed. 

5.  That  man  has  been  from  time  immemorial  a  right- 
handed  animal  is  beyond  dispute. 

6.  If  the  conditions  should  be  favorable,  we  may  see 
the  comet. 

7.  A  man  who  grumbles  much  prays  little. 

8.  The  smallest  dcwdrop  that  lies  on  the  meadow  at 
night  has  a  star  sleeping  in  its  bosom. 

9.  Too  many  who  have  not  learned  to  follow  want  to 
lead. 

10.  Some  people  seem  to  think  that  whining  is  religion. 

11.  When   an   honest  man   stays  away   from   the   polls, 
the  devil  votes. 


178  An  Eii<^Iish  Graiunior 

12.  It  generally  takes  a  blockhead  a  good  while  to  find 
out  what  ails  him. 

13.  One  of  the  first  signs  of  spring  which  one  sees  is  a 
crowd  of  boys  playing  marbles. 

14.  If  our  thoughts  were  written  on  our  faces,  how 
quickly  we  would  all  hang  our  heads. 

15.  As  the  genuineness  of  a  coin  is  made  apparent  by 
the  touch  of  an  acid,  so  are  the  qualities  of  manhood 
manifested  by  the  test  of  trial. 

16.  The  man  who  lives  only  for  himself  will  not  have 
many  mourners  at  his  funeral. 

17.  Worth  makes  the  man  and  want  of  it  the  fellow. 

18.  In  one  rude  crash  he  struck  the  lyre,  and  swept 
with  hurried  hand  the  strings. 

19.  Ulysses  listened  to  the  song  of  the  Sirens,  yet  he 
glided  by  without  being  seduced  to  their  shore. 

20.  Still  the  wonder  grew 

That  one  small  head  could  carry   all  he  knew. 

— Goldsmith. 

21.  Not  a  soldier  discharged  his  farewell  shot. 
O'er  the  grave  where  our  hero  was  buried. 

22.  All  seems  infected  that  the  infected  spy, 

As  all  looks  yellow  to  the  jaundiced  eye.  — Pope. 

23.  All  are  but  parts  of  one  stupendous  whole 
Whose  body  nature  is,  and  God  the  soul.  — Pope. 

24.  Much  pleased  was  he  to  find. 

That,  though  on  pleasure  she  was  bent. 

She  had  a  frugal  mind.  — Wordsivorth 

25.  Read  from  some  humbler  poet 

Whose  songs  gushed  from  his  heart, 
As  showers  from  the  clouds  of  summer 

Or  tears  from  the  eyelids  start.     — Longfellow. 

26.  A  man  he  was  to  all  the  country  dear, 
And  passing  rich  on  forty  poimds  a  year. 

— Goldsmith. 


The  Complex  Sentence  179 

27.  O,  well  for  the  fisherman's  boy 

That  he  shouts  with  his  sister  at  play  ! 
O,  well  for  the  sailor  lad 

That  he  sings  in  his  boat  on  the  bay! 

— Tennyson. 

28.  You  must  wake  and   call   me  early,  call  me  early, 

mother  dear : 
To-morrow'll  be  the  happiest  time  of  all  the  glad 

New  Year; 
Of  all  the  glad  New  Year,  mother,  the  maddest, 
merriest  day ; 
For  I'm   to  be  Queen  o'  the  May,  mother,   I'm  to 
be  Queen  o'  the  May.  — Tennyson. 

29.  Jov  comes,  grief  goes,  we  know  not   how  ; 
Everything  is  happy  now. 

Everything  is  upward  striving ; 

'Tis  as  easy  now  for  the  heart  to  be  true 

As  for  grass  to  be  green  or  skies  to  be  blue, 

'Tis  the  natural  way  of  living,  — Loivcll 

30.  Where  beams  of  warm  imagination  play 
The  memory's  soft  figures  melt  away. 

31.  He  loved  his  art  and  freely  spent  himself. 

Counting  no  cost,  nor  measuring  his  da\  s  ; 
Not  turned  asifle  by  misinterpreters 

Nor  halted  for  the  sweet  incense  of  ])raise. 

— Jenkins. 

123.  Punctuation.  We  lia\e  now  discovered 
most  of  the  followin.c:  principles  of  punclnation 
and  capitalization : 

I.  A  declarative  or  imperative  sentence 
should  begin  with  a  capital  and  close  with  a  pe- 
riod; as,  The  sun  shines  brightly.  Please  bring 
mc  a  book. 


180  An  English  Grammar 

2.  An  interrogative  sentence  should  begin 
with  a  capital  and  close  with  a  question  mark;  as, 

J  Hint  did  you  sayl^ 

3.  An  exclamatory  sentence  should  begin 
with  a  capital  and  close  with  an  exclamation 
point;  as,  O  that  my  father  would  come! 

4.  Parenthetical  expressions  are  usually  sep- 
arated from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  the 
comma;  as.  If  is  mind,  after  all,  ivhich  does  the 
work  of  the  zvorld. 

5.  Strongly  contrasted  expressions  should  be 

set  off  by  the  comma;  as,  Here,  all  is  peace  and 
quietness ;  there,  all  is  turmoil  and  strife. 

6.  The  punctuation  of  the  interjection  (See 
Section  22). 

7.  The  adverbial  clause  which  expresses  the 
adverbial  idea  of  condition  is  frequently  set  off 
by  the  comma;  as,  //  you  zvoidd  succeed  in  busi- 
ness, be  honest  and  industrious. 

8.  A  phrase  or  clause  out  of  its  natural  order 
is  usually  set  off  by  the  comma;  as,  JVIien  we 
zvish  to  enjoy  ourselves,  we  go  down  by  the  lake. 

9.  The  punctuation  of  the  compound  sen- 
tence.    (See  Section  83.) 

10.  A  series  of  expressions  in  the  same  con- 
struction should  be  separated  by  the  comma;  as, 

Aristotle,   Hamilton,    Wheatley,   and  MeCosh   are 
high  authorities  in  logic. 


The  Complex  Sentence  181 

11.  When  a  series  of  expressions  is  arranged 
in  pairs,  the  pairs  should  be  separated  by  the 
comma;  as,  The  poor  and  the  rich,  the  weak  and 
tJie  strong!;,  the  youn^^  and  the  old,  have  one  connnon 
Father. 

12.  The  adjective  clause.     (Sec  Section  ii8.) 

13.  The  appositive  modifier  is  usually  sep- 
arated from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  the 
comma;  as,  Longfelloiv,  tlie  poet,  lived  in  Cam- 
bridge. 

The  appositive  modi  Tier  of  the  pronoun,  it,  is  not 
usually  so  separated;  as,  It  is  not  strange  that  zve 
shonid  have  missed  you. 

14.  The   substantive   clause.      (See    Sections 
S9.  93  and  ()7.  ) 

15.  Words  used  by  way  of  direct  address 
should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence 
by  the  comma;  as,  Shozv  pity,  Lord,  O  Lord,  for- 
give! 

16.  Initials  and  abbreviations  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  period;  as,  At  tJie  request  of  the  Rt^ 
Rev.  IV.  IT.  Hooker,  D.  D.,  the  vote  was  taken. 

17.  Such  words  as,  namely,  to-ivit,  and  so 
forth,  should  be  preceded  by  the  semicolon  or  the 
comma,  and  followed  by  the  comma;  as,  Greeee 
Ji as  given  us  tliree  great  historians;  namely,  Herod- 
otus, Xenophon.  and  Thucydides. 

18.  A  series  of  expressions  in  the  same  con- 


182  An  EnglisJi   Gramuwr 

struction,  formally  introduced,  should  be  pre- 
ceded by  the  colon;  as,  Pronominal  adjectives  are 
divided  into  three  classes:  distributive,  demonstra- 
tive, and  indefinite. 

19.  A  clause  which  modifies  each  of  a  series 
of  expressions  should  be  separated  from  the  se- 
ries by  the  comma;  as,  The  horse  and  his  rider, 
that  zvcrc  so  much  admired ,  disappeared  suddenly. 

20.  Ellipses  may  be  indicated  by  the  comma; 

as,  Arithmetic  makes  an  accurate  student;  gram- 
mar, a  thoughtful  student;  history,  a  student  with 
a  strong  memory. 

21.  All  proper  names  should  begin  with  capi- 
tals; as,  Indianapolis  is  the  capital  of  Indiana. 

22.  The  first  word  in  each  line  of  poetry 
should  begin  with  a  capital;  as, 

He  does  confess  he  feels  himself  distracted: 
But  from  what  cause,  he  will  by  no  means 
speak. 

23.  The  words,  I  and  O,  should  always  be 
capitals;  as,  //  is  I.    O  Harry,  yon  are  a  poke! 

*  Exercise  55 

Which  capitals  in  the  folloiving  quotation  de- 
note the  beginning  of  nezv  sentences f  Which  mark 
only  the  beginning  of  a  nezv  line  of  poetry  f 

*Note:     The  teacher  should  u?e  her  judgment  in  drilling  pupils. 
Some  classes  need  more  exercises  than  others. 


The  Complex  Sentence  183 

This  is  the  forest  primeval.     The  murmuring  pines  and  the 

hemlocks, 
Bearded  with   moss,   and   in  garments  green,   indistinct   in 

the  twilight, 
Stand  like  Druids  of  old,  with  voices  sad  and  prophetic, 
Stand  like  harpers    hoar,    with    beards    that    rest    on    their 

bosoms. 
Loud  from  its  rocky  caverns,  the  deep-voiced  neighboring 

ocean 
Speaks,   and   in   accents    disconsolate  answers   the   wail   of 

the  forest. 
This  is  the  forest  primeval :  but  wliere  are  the  hearts  that 

beneath  it 
Leaped  like  the  roe,  when  he  hears  in  the  woodland  the 

voice  of  the  huntsman  ?  — Longfellow. 

Capitalize  and  punctuate  the  folloiving  sen- 
tences, gic'i)ig  reasons.     Write  your  zvork. 

1.  it  is  true  after  all  that  we  do  not  think  much 

2.  his  passion  however  prevented  his  seeing  the  danger 

3.  the  affair  passed  off  to  your  satisfaction   no  doubt 

4.  nelson  has  at  last  got  into  the  senate 

5.  he  promised  however  to  set  about  reform  at  once 

6.  however  much  he  promised  it  was  but  little  that 
he  performed 

7.  on  the  left  were  waving  fields  of  grain  on  the  right 
was  the  river 

8.  why  this  is  all  wrong 

9.  Joseph  who  happened  to  be  in  the  field  at  the  time 
saw  the  carriage  approach  and  in  an  ecstasy  of  delight 
hastened  to  meet  it 

10.  if  you  are  honest  with  yourself  you  will  see  that 
you  are  wrong 

11,  the  tree  will  not  bear  fruit  in  autumn  unless  it 
blossoms  in  the  spring 


184  An  English  Grammar 

12.  plant  in  a  man  an  earni'st  jjnrposc  and  you  awaken 
in  him  a  new  power 

13.  give  time  to  the  study  of  nature  whose  laws  are  all 
deeply  interesting 

14.  those  friends  who  in  the  native  vigor  of  his  powers 
perceived  the  dawn  of  robertson's  future  eminence  were 
at  length  amply  rewarded 

15.  he  preaches  most  eloquently  who  leads  the  most 
pious  life 

16.  no  thought  can  be  just  of  which  good  sense  is  not 
the  ground  work 

17.  there  are  men  and  women  whose  desire  for  knowl- 
edge is  never  satisfied 

18.  modern  engineering  spans  whole  continents  tunnels 
alike  mountains  and  rivers  and  dikes  out  old  ocean  himself 

19.  did  god  create  for  the  poor  a  coarser  earth  a  thin- 
ner air  a  paler  sky 

20.  whitney  carpenter  and  sweet  are  high  authorities 
in  grammar 

21.  the  good  and  the  bad  the  high  and  the  low  the 
honest  and  the  dishonest  were  huddled  together 

22.  himself  the  greatest  of  agitators  napoleon  became 
the  most  oppressive  of  tyrants 

23.  macaulay  the  historian  was  a  master  of  style 

24.  the  word  poet  meaning  a  maker  a  creator  is  de- 
rived from  the  greek 

25.  the  greatest  poet  among  the  ancients  homer  like 
the  greatest  among  the  moderns  milton  was  blind 

26.  the  request  was  made  by  the  rt  rev  j  e  walker  dd 

27.  i  beg  leave  sir  to  present  my  friend  lord  hargrave 

28.  henry  please  close  the  door 

29.  then  came  the  guests  the  table  being  spread  and  sat 
down  to  tlir  feast 

30.  to  obtain  an  education  he  was  willing  to  make 
sacrifices 


The  Complex  Sentence  1^5 

31.  awkward  in  person  he  was  ill  adapted  to  gain  respect 

32.  reading  maketh  a  full  man,  conference  a  ready  man 
writing  an  exact  man 

33.  semiramis  built  bab\loii  dido  cartilage  and  ronuilus 
rome 

34.  someone  justly  remarks  it  is  a  great  loss  to  lose  an 
affliction 

35.  Patrick  benr_\-  began  bis  great  speech  by  saying  it 
is  natural  to  man  to  indulge  in  the  illusions  of  hope 

36.  as  we  perceived  the  shadow  to  have  moved  but  did 
not  perceive  its  moving  so  our  advances  in  learning  con- 
sisting of  such  minute  steps  are  perceivable  only  by  the 
distance 

2)7-  so,  sad  and  dark  a  history  is  scarcely  to  be  found 
in  any  work  of  fiction  and  we  are  little  disposed  to  envy 
the  moralist  who  can  read  it  without  being  softened 

38.  if  we  think  of  glory  in  the  field  of  wisdom  in  the 
cabinet  of  the  purest  patriotism  of  the  highest  integrity 
public  and  private  of  morals  without  a  stain  of  religious 
feeling  without  intolerance  and  without  extravagance  the 
august  figure  of  Washington  presents  itself  as  the  persona- 
tion of  all  these 

39.  the  temple  is  profaned  the  soldiers  oath  resounds  in 
the  house  of  god  the  marble  pavement  is  trampled  by  iron 
hoofs  horses  neigh  beside  the  altar 

40.  we  have  had  three  great  speakers  phillips  webster 
and  hoar 

41.  attributive  words  are  divided  into  three  classes  ad- 
jectives adverbs  attributive  verbs 

42.  speaking  of  party  pope  makes  this  remark  there 
never  was  any  party  faction  sect  or  cabal  whatsoever  in 
which  the  most  ignorant  were  not  the  most  violent 

43.  can  these  words  add  vigor  to  your  hearts  yes  they 
can  do  it  they  have  often  done  it 

44.  }cs  my  lords  I  am  amazed  at  his  lordship's  speech 


186  An  English  Grammar 


&' 


45.  shall  a  man  obtain  the  favor  of  heaven  by  impiety 
by  murder  by  falsehood  by  theft 

46.  o  what  a  fair  and  ministering  angel 

47.  ho  trumpets  sound  a  war  note 

48.  Socrates  said  that  he  believed  the  soul  to  be  im- 
mortal 

49.  someone  has  said  what  an  argument  for  prayer  is 
contained  in  the  words  our  father  whiqh  art  in  heaven 

50.  trench  says  what  a  lesson  the  word  diligence 
contains 

51.  there  is  but  one  object  says  augustine  gi eater  than 
the  soul  and  that  is  its  creator 

52.  let  me  make  the  ballads  of  the  nation  srid  fletcher 
and  i  care  not  who  makes  the  laws 

53.  what  do  you  think  i  will  shave  you  for  nothing 
and  give  you  a  drink 

54.  to  greece  we  are  indebted  for  the  three  principal 
orders  of  architecture  the  dorian  the  ionian  and  the  Corinth- 
ian 

55.  he  who  is  his  own  lawyer  is  said  to  have  a  fool 
for  his  client 

56.  'tis  not  the  whole  of  life  to  live 
nor  all  of  death  to  die 

57.  to  honour  god  to  benefit  mankind 

to  serve  with  lofty  gifts  the  lowly  needs 
of  the  poor  race  for  which  the  god-man  died 
and  do  it  all  for  love  oh  this  is  great 

58.  a  still  small  voice  spake  unto  me 
thou  art  so  full  of  misery 

were  it  not  better  not  to  be 

59.  the  lilies  behold  how  we  preach  without  words  of 
purity 

60.  and  i  will  trust  that  he  who  heeds 
the  life  that  hides  in  mead  and  wold 
who  hangs  yon  alders  crimson  beads 


The  Complex  Sentence  187 

and  stains  these  mosses  green  and  gold 
will  still  as  he  hath  done  incline 
his  gracious  ear  to  me  and  mine 

After  the  sentences  in  the  preceding  list  are 
punctuated,  use  them  in  reviewing  any  of  the  work 
of  the  preceding  chapters. 

In  about  what  proportion  do  these  kinds  of  sen- 
tences occur?  Could  the  thought  of  either  of  these 
selections  be  expressed  exclusively  in  simple  sen- 
tences or  in  compound  sentences,  or  in  complex  sen- 
tences? What  is  the  advantage  in  using  all  three 
kinds  ? 

Work  in  Composition 

Description  (continued). 
I. 

What  feeling  do  you  get  from  looking  at  the 
picture  called  "The  Hay's  Work  Done,"  facing- 
page  j6.  What  is  pictured.^  What  season  of  the 
year  is  suggested  by  it.'    What  time  of  day:^ 

J  Trite  a  description  of  the  picture. 

The  Four  W's.  Notice  how  in  "  The  Eagle" 
Mr.  Tennyson  has  presented  a  picture  by  making- 
clear  zvhat  he  is  talking  about,  the  eagle:  by  naming 

llic  occasion,  the  eagle  first  zvatching  and  then 
plunging:  the  place,  the  crag  close  to  the  sun  in 
lonely  lands;  the  time,  suggested  by  the  position  of 
the  .97/7?.  \\'e  see  that  four  elements  have  been 
named  or  suggested :  the  what,  the  wliere,  the  when 


188  An  English  Grammar 

and  the  why  (the  occasion).     Tlicse  are  cahed  the 
four  W's. 

Read  your  paper.  Hai'e  you  either  expressed 
or  suggested  t lie  four  W'sf 

II. 

Study  tlie  pieture  ealled  "In  the  Pasture,"  fac- 
ing page  /cV(V. 

What  iniprews^ioii  does  tJie  pieture  nu;/:e  upon 
yon?  Name  the  four  U"s. 

Write  a  description  of  tJie  picture  a  paragraph 
long.  Let  the  first  sentence  char  act  erirse  the  pict- 
ure by  giving  tlie  general  impression  lehich  you  re- 
ceived from  it,  and  the  others  name  the  four  JV's. 
Decide  whether  you  zeant  to  describe  the  picture  as 
if  you  were  now  looking  upon  it,  or  as  if  you  had 
looked  upon  it  in  tlie  past  and  then  keep  your  verbs 
all  in.  tlie  same  tense.  For  knowledge  of  tense  see 
section  266.  page  208. 

III. 

Study  the  picture  called  ''The  JJ^oods  in  JVin- 
ter",  facing  page  i. 

The  Four  W's  Suggested.  The  season  of 
the  year,  llie  time  of  day.  tlie  ])lace,  the  ])eople  and 
the  occasion  may  be  sug'gested  in  a  description. 
Gail}'  colored  leaves  11  uttering-  to  the  s.^Tound  sul?- 
g'est  fall:  burning-  sand  and  oiaring  sun  suggest  a 
desert;   a   person   riding   a   broomstick   suggests   a 


IX  riir:  r.isrrRi-: 


The  Complex  Sentence  189 

witch,    and   some   one   running   excitedly   down   a 
street  suggests  that  there  is  trouble  somewhere. 

Write  a  description  of  the  picture.    Try  to  sug- 
gest some  of  the  four  IV's. 


TJic  Fourth  Section. 

Chapter  13 

Parts  of  Speech 

We  have  been  studying  sentences  as  wholes 
and  we  have  discovered  the  different  classes  of  sen- 
tences on  the  basis  of  their  chief  purpose  and  on  the 
basis  of  the  number  and  relation  of  thoughts  ex- 
pressed. In  studying  the  organic  parts  of  sentences, 
the  subject,  predicate  and  copula,  we  have  learned 
how  all  the  different  kinds  of  words  which  we  have 
in  our  language  are  used  in  these  different  kinds  of 
sentences  and  all  the  modifiers  which  belong  to 
them. 

We  are  now  to  stud}^  these  classes  of  words 
more  in  detail.  We  have  in  the  English  language 
more  than  two  hundred  thousand  words;  but,  as 
we  have  seen,  we  can  arrange  them  all  in  a  few 
classes  according  to  their  uses  in  expressing 
thought. 

These  classes  of  words  which  we  have  alreadv 
discussed  and  defined  are  called  parts  of  speech. 


[190] 


Chapter  14 

The  Noun 

124.  The  Noun  Defined.  A  noun  is  a  sub- 
stantive word  which  expresses  an  object  of 
thought  by  naming  it;as.  The  gallant  crew  rowed 
against  a  heavy  sea. 

125.  Classes  of  Nouns.  In  the  sentence,  The 
Wabash  Hozvs  south  along  the  western  boundary 
of  the  state  of  Indiana,  the  nouns,  state  and  Indiana, 
express  the  same  object  of  thought,  but  in  differ- 
ent ways.  The  noun,  state,  expresses  the  object  of 
thought  by  calHng  attention  to  or  emphasizing  the 
attributes'  which  it  has  in  common  with  other  ob- 
jects of  thought  in  that  class;  while  the  noun,  In- 
diana, expresses  the  object  of  thought  by  calling 
attention  to  or  emphasizing  the  attributes  pe- 
culiar to  it.  We  call  the  first  a  common  noun  and 
the  second  a  proper  noun. 

126.  Proper  Noun  Defined.  A  proper  noun  is 
a  noun  which  expresses  an  object  of  thought  by 
emphasizing  the  attributes  peculiar  to  it;  as,  Min- 
neapolis is  a  beautiful  city. 

127.  Common  Noun  Defined.  A  common 
noun  is  a   noun   which   expresses   an   object   of 

[■90 


192  ^ii  English   Grammar 

thought  by  emphasizing  the  attributes  which  it 
has  in  common  with  the  members  of  its  class;  as, 
The  city  is  heavitifiil. 

Exercise  56 

Write  seven  proper  noiins  zvJiicJi  are  suggested 
by  the  following  common  norins:^  river,  book,  girl, 
tree,   building,"  man,   woman. 

Write  common  nouns  which  are  suggested  by 
the  follozving  proper  nouns:  Chicago,  Iowa,  Harry, 
France,  Monday,  Mary,  June. 

Write  ten  sentences  containing  proper  nouns 
and  ten  contaiiiino;  common  nouns. 

128.  Classes  of  Common  Nouns.  Tn  the  sen- 
tences. The  horse  is  a  useful  animal.  The  school 
zvas  dismissed  for  a  holiday.  Iron  is  heavy.  The 
nouns,  horse,  school,  and  iron,  are  all  common 
nouns.  The  word,  horse,  however,  expresses  an 
object  of  thought  which  is  composed  of  individuals 
thought  together  on  the  basis  of  their  common  at- 
tributes; the  noun,  school,  expresses  an  object  of 
thought  made  up  of  a  number  of  individuals  thought 
together  in  space;  while  the  noun,  iron,  expresses 
an  object  of  thought  which  is  the  material  or  sub- 
stance out  of  which  other  things  are  made.  This 
difference  in  common  nouns  gives  us  three 
classes:  class  nouns,  collective  nouns,  and  sub- 
stance nouns. 

129.  Class  Noun  Defined.    A  class  noun  is  a 


The  Noun  li^3 

common  noun  which  expresses  an  object  of 
thought  made  up  of  individuals  that  are  thought 
together  on  the  basis  of  their  common  attri- 
butes ;  or  it  may  express  one  or  more  than  one  of 
these  individuals;  as,  The  horse  is  a  useful  animal. 
The  horse  is  tied  to  the  post.  The  horses  are  ir 
the  field. 

130.  The  Collective  Noun  Defined.  A  collect- 
ive noun  is  a  common  noun  which  expresses  an 
object  of  thought  made  up  of  a  number  of  indi- 
viduals thought  together  in  space;  as,   The  jury 

zvas  dismissed. 

131.  The  Substance  Noun  Defined.  A  sub- 
stance noun  is  a  noun  which  expresses  an  object 
of  thought  that  is  the  material  out  of  which  other 
things  are  made;  as,  The  spoon  was  made  of  pew- 
ter. 

132.  Other  Classes  of  Nouns.  The  division 
of  nouns  into  common  and  proper  is  on  the  basis  of 
the  kind  of  attributes  emphasized.  Nouns  may  be 
divided  on  another  basis.  In  the  sentence,  The  city 
zvas  de.stroyed  by  fire,  the  noun,  city,  expresses  an 
object  of  thought  which  was  first  known  by  its  at- 
tributes.   We  call  tliis  a  concrete  noun. 

In  the  sentence,  Truth  zvill  triumph  in  the  end, 
the  noun,  trutJi,  expresses  an  object  of  thought 
which  was  first  known  as  an  attribute.  We  call 
this  an  abstract  noun. 


194  /In  Eii'^lisli  Grammar 

133.  Concrete  Noun  Defined.  A  concrete 
noun  is  a  noun  which  expresses  an  object  of 
thought  that  was  first  known  by  its  attributes; 
as,  llic  money  was  stolen.  New  York  is  the  me- 
tropolis of  the  Ignited  States. 

134.  Abstract  Noun  Defined.  An  abstract 
noun  is  a  noun  which  expresses  an  object  of 
thought  that  was  first  known  as  an  attribute;  as. 

Justice  is  a  virtue  which  inelndes  many  others. 
Christian  was  on  his  way  to  the  Holy  City  when 
he  met  zvitJi  Patience. 

Exercise  57 

In  tJie  follozving  seutenees  point  out  the  nouns 
and  classify  them  into  the  smallest  known  classes 
on  each  basis,  stating  the  basis  in  each  case. 

1.  The  house  is  made  of  brick. 

2.  The  cup  and  spoon  were  presents. 

3.  Iron  is  a  useful  metal. 

4.  The  girl's  cheeks  were  rosy. 

5.  The  man  placed  his  hand  on  the  boy's  head. 

6.  The  boat  turned  on  her  side. 

7.  Such  a  banner  was  long-  since  waving  over  the  portal 
of  the  Province  House. 

8.  Silver  and  gold  have  I  none. 

9.  The  odor  of  the  flower  was  pleasant. 

10.  The  articles  were  made  of  wood  and  iron, 
ir.  Do  you  like  the  flavor  of  the  fruit? 

12.  Thunder  and  lightning  are  frightful. 

13.  "Another  trump  for  the  Lady  Eleanore !  "  he  cried. 

14.  The  man  is  six  feet  in  height. 

15.  Truth  is  stranger  than  fiction. 


The  Noun  n^-'> 

16.  The  lad's  goodness  of  heart  atoned  for  his  ughncss 
of  feature. 

17.  His  absence  is  more  to  be  desired  than  his  presence. 

18.  Caesar's  anger  knew  no  bounds. 

19.  Which  is  greater,  Martin  Luther  or  Mohammed? 

20.  Ohver  was  on  his  way  from  Ludgate  to  Cornhill 
when  he  met  a  group  of  bootblacks. 

21.  A  troop  of  children  gamboled  on  the  green. 

22.  The  family  became  uneasy. 

23.  The  school  consisted  of  a  dozen  children. 

24.  Jupiter  is  larger  than  Venus. 

25.  The  fleet  was  overtaken  in  the  Red  Sea. 

26.  Friendship  is  not  to  be  despised. 

27.  The  herd  came  up  to  the  house. 

-8.  Strength  may  be  substituted  for  weakness. 

29.  But.  even  amid  the  darkness,  his  fair  face 

Ever  turned  eager  toward  the  eternal  light, 
He  saw  the  bright  beams  of  the  coming  day 

Far  through  tlie  blackness  of  tli"enshrouding  night. 

— Jenkins. 

30.  Wounded  and   fallen,  still  he  struggled  on, 

P.rave-heartcd,  valiant  to  his  latest  breath  : 
With  cvpress  mourners  came  ;  but,  laurel-crowned, 
Thev  found  him  smiling  in  the  arms  of  Death. 

— Jenkins. 

135.  Properties  of  the  Noun.  Most  words 
change  their  form  hy  inflection,  derivation,  or 
composition  to  express  different  shades  of  mean- 
ing; as,  man,  man's,  men. 

These  changes  in  the  forms  of  words  or  in 
their  relations  to  their  context  to  denote  differ- 
ent shades  of  meaning,  we  call  properties. 

136.  Gender.    Study  the  following  sentences: 


I'**'  An  English  Grammar 

1.  Boys  play  ball. 

2.  The  girls  arc  interested  in  their  work. 

3.  The  child  is  asleep. 

4.  The  tree  is  blighted. 

The  noun,  hoy.s,  expresses  an  object  of  thought 
of  the  male  sex.  The  noun,  girls,  expresses  an  ob- 
ject of  thought  of  the  female  sex.  The  noun,  child, 
expresses  an  object  of  thought  that  has  sex  but 
does  not  show  which  sex  it  is.  The  noun,  tree,  ex- 
presses an  object  of  thought  that  has  no  sex.  Thus 
we  see  that  each  word  shows  the  relation  between 
the  object  of  thought  expressed  by  it  and  the  idea 
of  sex.     This  property  of  nouns  w^e  call  gender. 

137.  Gender  Defined.  Gender  is  that  prop- 
erty of  the  substantive  word  which  shows  the  re- 
lation which  the  object  of  thought  expressed  by 
it  bears  to  sex;  as,  man,  woman,  student,  house. 

138.  Classes  of  Gender.  We  may  see  from 
Section  136  that  the  object  of  thought  expressed 
by  the  noun  may  have  four  different  relations  to 
sex;  hence  we  have  four  classes  of  gender:  mas- 
culine, feminine,  common,  and  neuter. 

139.  Masculine  Gender  Defined.  Masculine 
gender  is  that  gender  which  shows  that  the  ob- 
ject of  thought  expressed  by  the  substantive  word 

is  of  the  male  sex;  as.  His  uncle  'ivas  present. 

140.  Feminine  Gender  Defined.  Feminine 
gender  is  that  gender  which  shows  that  the  ob- 
ject of  thought  expressed  by  the  substantive  word 


The  Noun  1*^" 

is  of  the  female  sex;  as.  The  boy's  mother  was 
worried. 

141.  Common  Gender  Defined.  Common 
gender  is  that  gender  which  shows  that  the  ob- 
ject of  thought  expressed  by  the  substantive  word 
has  sex,  but  does  not  show  which  sex  it  is;  as, 
TJie  pupil  zvas  prompt. 

142.  Neuter  Gender  Defined.  Neuter  gender 
is  that  gender  which  shows  that  the  object  of 
thought  'expressed  by  the  substantive  word  has 
no  sex;  as,  The  problem  was  difficult. 

143.  Methods  of  Denoting  Gender.  Notice 
the  following  words  and  give  the  gender  of  each: 
Nephew,  niece,  he-bear,  she-bear,  host,  hostess. 

You  will  notice  that  sometimes  we  use  differ- 
ent words  to  express  masculine  and  feminine  gen- 
der ;  sometimes  we  merely  change  the  ending  of 
the  word,  and  sometimes  wc  prefix  a  gender 
word.  This  gives  us  three  ways  of  distinguish- 
ing gender: 

I.  By  the  use  of  the  suffix. 

Learn  to  spell  the  folloiving  gender  words: 
Masculine         abbess  Masculine         Feminine 

abbot  Feminine  host  hostess 

actor  actress  hunter  huntress 

administrator    administratrix  idolater  idolatress 

adventurer         adventuress       Jew  Jewess 

baron  baroness  lad  lass 

benefactor         benefactress      lion  lioness 


\9s 


An  English   Grannnar 


Masculine 

feminine 

Masculine 

Feminine 

count 

countess 

marquis 

marchioness 

czar 

czarina 

master 

mistress 

deacon 

deaconess 

patron 

patroness 

duke 

duchess 

preceptor 

preceptress 

emperor 

empress 

prince 

princess 

enchanter 

enchantress 

prophet 

prophetess 

executor 

executrix 

shepherd 

shepherdess 

^-iant 

giantess 

sorcerer 

sorceress 

god 

goddess 

sultan 

sultana 

heir 

heiress 

tiger 

tigress 

hero 

heroine 

waiter 

waitress 

2.  By  prefixing  a  gender  word. 

Learn  to  spell  the  zvords  in  the  follozving  list: 

Masculine  Feminine  Masculine  Feminine 

luill-elephant  cow-elephant  he-goat  she-goat 

cock-sparrow  hen-sparrow  man-servant  maid-servant 

he-bear  she-bear  pea-cock  pea-hen 

3.  By  the  use  of  separate  words. 

Learn  to  spell  the  zvords  in  the  follozving  list: 

Masculine  Feminine  Masculine  Feminine 

bachelor  spinster,  maid  monk  nun 

buck  doe  ram  ewe 

bullock  heifer  stag  hind 

drake  duck  wizard  witch 

gander  goose  husband  wife 

Exercise  58 

Write  the  follozving  zvords  in  tzvo  columns.  In 
the  first  colinnn  write  tlie  masculine  form  and  in  the 
second  the  feniinine: 


The  Noun  11»0 

Sister,  niece,  uncle,  son,  Mr.,  Charles,  actor,  ex- 
ecutor, sorcerer,  witch,  duke,  queen,  husbanch 
mother,  widow,  goose,  nun,  patron,  prophet. 

144.  Irregularities  in  Gender.  i.  A  noun 
which  is  usually  neuter  gender  niav  become  mas- 
culine or  feminine  by  personification,  that  is, 
when  the  mind  gives  to  the  object  expressed  by  it 
the  attributes  of  a  person;  as.  The  ship  has  lost  her 
rudder.  The  mcek-cyed  morn  appears  mother  of 
dezvs.  The  sun  in  his  glory  appears.  The  moon 
in  her  wane  hides  her  face. 

2.  A  noun  usually  common  gender  niay  be- 
come masculine  or  feminine  gender  wlien  the 
context,  that  is,  the  meaning  of  the  sentence,  in- 
dicates the  sex  of  the  o1)icct  of  thought ;  as,  The  fox 
made  her  escape.  The  nightingale  sings  her  song. 
Tlic  deer  ran  iinti!  he  dropped. 

3.  Nouns  which  are  usually  masculine  gender 
may  become  common  gender  when  the  context,  or 
the  meaning  of  the  sentence,  shows  tliat  the  ob- 
ject of  thouglit  exi)resscd  tluTcl)}'  is  made  U])  ol 
individuals  of  both  sexes;  as,  Heirs  arc  often  dis- 
appointed. Ttic  poets  ()/"  .  hncrica  shoiihi  he  hon- 
ored. 

4.  A  noun  which  is  usually  common  gender  may 
l)ecome  neuter  gender  \\hen  the  context  shows  that 
tlie  mind  is  not  emphasizing  the  attri1)ute  of  sex 
in  Ihe  ol)jcc1  of  thought  ex]:>ressed  l)y  it;  as.  The 
child  ///  ils  i^'cakucss  is  inaslcr  (>f  ah. 


200  An  English  Grammar 

145.  Person.  Study  the  nouns  in  the  follow- 
ing" sentences : 

1.  I,  John,  saw  it  in  a  dream. 

2.  I  hope,  Mary,  that  you  will  study  diligently. 

3.  Friends  should  trust  one  another. 

We  can  see  that  the  noun,  John,  expresses  a  per- 
son who  is  speaking;  the  noun;  Mary,  a  person 
who  is  spoken  to;  and  the  noun,  friends,  expresses 
the  persons  or  object  of  thouglit  which  is  spoken 
of.  Each  noun  thus  indicates  or  has  indicated  for 
it  by  the  context,  the  relation  between  the  object 
of  thought  and  the  speaker.  This  property  of  nouns 
we  call  person. 

146.  Person  Defined.  Person  is  that  prop- 
erty of  the  substantive  word  which  shows  the  re- 
lation between  the  object  of  thought  expressed 
by  it  and  the  speaker;  as,  /,  William,  szccar  if  on 
uiy  honor.  You,  Arthur,  may  become  a  farmer. 
Samuel  is  my  cousin. 

147.  Classes  of  Person.  We  have  seen  in 
Section  145  that  the  object  of  thought  expressed 
by  the  substantive  word  may  bear  three  relations 
to  the  speaker;  namely,  identity,  person  spoken 
to,  and  person  or  object  spoken  of.  We  thus 
have  three  classes  of  person,  and  we  call  them 
first,  second,  and  third. 

148.  First  Person  Defined.  The  first  person 
is  that  person  which  shows  that  the  object  of 


The  Noun  201 

thought  expressed  by  the  substantive  word  is 
the  speaker;  as,  I,  Walter,  fake  thee  at  thy  zvord. 

149.  Second  Person  Defined.  The  second  per- 
son is  that  person  which  shows  that  the  object 
of  thought  expressed  by  the  substantive  word  is 
the  object  of  thought  addressed  by  the  speaker; 
as,  Yoii,  Thomas,  look  guilty. 

150.  Third  Person  Defined.  The  third  per- 
son is  that  person  which  shows  that  the  object 
of  thought  expressed  by  the  substantive  word  is 
the  object  of  thought  that  is  spoken  of;  as,  Har- 
old came  early  in  the  morning. 

Exercise  59 

Point  out  the  nouns  in  the  follozving  sentences 
and  give  the  person  of  each.  Notice  that  the  noun 
does  not  change  form  to  denote  person  but  that  the 
relation  betzveen  the  object  of  thought  expressed  by 
it  and  the  speaker  must  be  determined  by  the  con- 
text: 

1.  The  lion  is  the  king  of  beasts. 

2.  The  heroine  of  the  play  appears  only  once. 

3.  You,  Mr.  Williams,  may  meet  me  in  my  office. 

4.  I,  W.  R.  Merriam,  declare  it  to  be  true. 

5.  I  hope,  Edward,  that  you  will  remember  that  char- 
acter is  more  precious  than  gold. 

6.  Tears  fall  sometimes  when  hearts  are  least  willing  to 
show  grief. 

7.  You  are  the  gentleman  who  so  kindly  assisted  me. 

151.  Number.     Stud}-   the   nouns  in   the   fol- 


^**^  An  English  Granuiiar 

lowing  sentences:     JVe  start  for  California  in  the 
luorning.     These  states  seceded  from  the  Union. 

Notice  thai  the  noun,  California,  expresses  a 
single  individual;  wliije  the  noun,  states,  expresses 
a  number  of  indivicUials.  This  property  of  the 
noun  which  indicates  tlie  numher  of  individuals  ex- 
pressed hy  it,  we  call  number. 

152.  Number  Defined.  Number  is  that  prop- 
erty of  the  substantive  word  which  shows 
whether  the  object  of  thought  expressed  by  it  is 
one  or  more  than  one  individual;  as.  The  thief  es- 
caped.    Thieves  quarrel  a  in  on  g  theuisehes. 

153.  Classes  of  Number.  As  we  have  seen 
in  Section  151,  nouns  always  express  one  or  more 
than  one  individual,  hence  we  can  have  but  two 
classes  of  number.  We  call  them  singular  and 
plural. 

154.  Singular  Number  Defined.  Singular 
number  is  that  number  which  shows  that  the  ob- 
ject of  thought  expressed  by  the  substantive 
word  is  one  individual;  as.  The  horse  was  sold  at 
auction. 

155.  Plural  Number  Defined.  Plural  number 
is  that  num.ber  which  shows  that  the  object  of 
thought  expressed  by  the  substantive  word  is 
more  than  one  individual;  as.  The  trees  were 
blozvn  down  by  the  storm. 

156.  Rules  for  the  Formation  of  the  Plural. 


TJic  Noun  203 

Most  nouns  form  the  plural  by  adding  s  to 
the  singular;  as,  free,  trees. 

To  this  general  rule,  however,  there  are  many 
exceptions.  The  most  important  of  these  may  be 
indicated  under  the  following  special  rules : 

a.  Last  sound  of  singular.  When  the  last 
sound  of  the  singular  form  does  not  unite  well  with 
the  sound  of  .9,  es  is  added  to  the  singular  to  form 
the  plural.  .  This  forms  an  additional  syllable,  which 
is  pronounced;  as,  box,  boxes. 

b.  Plural  OF  NOUNS  ENDING  IN  3'.  Most  nouns 
ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel  simply  add  s;  as, 
valley,  valleys. 

Nouns  ending  in  3'  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
change  3'  to  i  and  add  es  to  form  the  plural ;  as,  lady, 
ladies;  city,  cities. 

Write  the  plurals  of  the  following  nouns:  sky, 
chimney,  key,  fly,  penny,  turkey. 

c.  Plural  of  nouns  ending  in  0.  Nouns 
ending  in  o  preceded  l)y  a  vowel  form  their  plurals 
regularly  by  adding  .s-;  as,  folio,  folios. 

Nouns  ending  in  0  preceded  by  a  consonant  usu- 
ally form  their  plurals  by  adding  es  to  the  singular ; 
as,  negro,  negroes:  hero,  heroes:  potato,  potatoes. 

The  following  words  are  exceptions  to  this  rule: 
banjo  chromo  halo  octavo 

solo  burro  contralto  junto 

piano  stiletto  canto  duodecimo 

lasso  proviso  Casino  dynamo 

memento  quarto 


204  An  English  Grammar 

d.  Nouns  ending  in  /  or  fe.  Nouns  ending  in 
/  or  fe  usually  change  this  ending  to  v  and  add  es  to 
form  their  plurals ;  as, 

beef,  beeves  half,  halves  elf,  elves  knife,  knives 

life,  lives  calf,  calves  half,  halves  leaf,  leaves 

loaf,  loaves  self,  selves  wife,  wiV^^y  shelf,  shelves 

sheaf,  sheaves  thief,  thieves  wolf,  wolves 

e.  Plurals"  IN  £-«.  A  few  words  form  their 
plurals  by  adding  en  to  the  singular;  as,  ox,  oxen; 
brother,  brethren;  child,  children. 

f.  Internal  changes  in  nouns  to  form  the 
PLURAL.  A  few  nouns  form  their  plurals  by  inter- 
nal changes ;  as, 

foot,  feet  woman,  women 

louse,  lice  man,  men 

mouse,  mice  tooth,  teeth 
goose,  geese 

g.  Plurals  of  letters,  figures,  and  other 
SYMBOLS.  Letters,  figures  and  other  symbols 
form  their  plurals  by  adding  an  apostrophe  and 
s  to  the  singular;  as,  /,  I's;  t,  fs;  f,  fs;  4,  4's. 

h.  Plurals  of  proper  nouns.  Proper  nouns 
form  their  plurals  regularly  by  adding  s  to  the  sin- 
gular; as,  Mary,  Marys;  Nero,  Neros. 

Proper  nouns  preceded  by  titles;  as,  Mr.  Crow, 
Mrs.  Crozv,  Miss  Crow,  General  Crow,  form  their 
plural  in  two  ways.  \Ve  may  say,  The  Mr.  Crows, 
The  Mrs.  Crows,  The  Miss  Crows,  The  General 
Crows,  or  we  may  say :  TJie  Messrs.  Crow,  The  Mes- 
dames  Crozv,  The  Misses  Crow,  The  Generals  Crow. 


The  Noun  iV^S 


r 


r  e^ 


i.  Plurals  of  compound  nouns.     Most  com- 
pound nouns    form    their   plurals    by    adding   the 
proper  sign  of  the  plural  to  the  principal  or 
sential  part  of  the  word,  that  is,  to  the  part  wl 
is  described  by  the  rest  of  the  phrase;  as,  ox-d 
ox-carts;    court -martial,    courts-martial;    aide-de- 
camp,  aides-de-camp. 

When  no  single  word'  is  principal  or  essential, 
the  sign  of  the  plural  is  put  at  the  end  of  the  word ; 
as,  forget-me-not,  forget-me-nots;  spoonful,  spoon- 
fuls: cupful,  cup  fills. 

There  are  a  few  compound  nouns,  the  principal 
words  of  which  are  difficult  to  determine,  which  add 
the  sign  of  the  plural  to  both  words;  as,  man-serv- 
ant, men-servants :  woman-servant,  women-serv- 
ants: knight-templar,  knights-templars. 

].  Singular  and  plural  the  same.  Some 
nouns  have  the  same  form  in  both  singular  and 
plural;  as,  trout,  sheep,  cod,  szvine,  salmon,  grouse, 
deer. 

Some  nouns  expressing  num1)cr  or  measure 
mav  be  used  in  the  plural  sense  without  change 
of  form,  the  plural  meaning  being  sufficiently 
indicated  by  the  numerals;  as,  two  yoke  of  oxen, 
four  pair  of  horses,  five  dozen  eggs,  four  score 
years,  tzvo  hundred-zveight  of  Hour. 

157.  Plurals  with  Different  Meanings.  Some 
nouns  have  more  than  one  plural  foruL  These  plu- 
ral forms,  however,  differ  in  meaning;  as, 


20(# 


An  English  Graininar 


fish,  fishes  (separate  objects), 
fish  (collective)  ; 
brother,  brothers  (by  birth), 
£thren  (of  an  organization)  ; 
dies  (for  coining  or 
stamping), 
dice  (for  play)  ; 
shot,  shots   (explosions), 
shot  (balls)  ; 


UlUi 


indices   (in  mathematics)  ; 
penny,  pennies  (coins), 
pence  (a  sum  of  money)  ; 
genius,  geniuses  (bright 

persons)  ; 
gemi  (spirits)  ; 
cloth,  cloths  (of  different 

kinds)  , 
clothes  (garments). 


index,  indexes  (of  books), 

158.  Foreign  Plurals.   Some  nouns  of  foreign 
origin  retain  their  foreign  plurals.     There  is  a 
tendency,  however,  in  modern  English  to  form  Eng- 
lish plurals  for  these  nouns;  as, 
alinnna  (feminine),  alumnae:      curricula  (foreign)  ; 
alumnus  (masculine),  alumni: 
analysis,  analyses; 


genus,  genera; 
memorandum,  memorand- 
ums (English)  , 
memoranda  (foreign)  ; 
phenomenon,  phenomena ; 
seraph,  seraphs  (English), 
seraphim  (foreign)  ; 
stratum,  strata; 
tableau,  tableaux. 


bacterium,  bacteria; 
bandit,  bandits  (English), 
banditti  (foreign)  ; 
beau,  beaus  (English), 
beaux  (foreign)  ; 
cherub,  cherubs  (English), 
cherubim  (foreign)  ; 
curricxdum,  curriculums 
(English)  , 

159.  Nouns  Plural  in  Form  but  Singular  in 
Meaning.  Some  nouns  which  are  plural  in  form 
are  sin^-ular  in  meaning;  as.  United  States,  nezvs, 
inathcinatics,  gallows,  auicuds,  physics,  and  most 
other  words  ending  in  ics.  A\'ith  each  of  these 
words  we  use  a  singular  verb;  as,  The  itews  is  had. 
Mathematics  is  difficult.    Optics  is  a  science. 


The  Noun 


207 


The  words,  athletics  and  politics,  however,  usu- 
ally take  the  plural  verb.  Again,  the  following 
nouns  which  look  very  much  like  these  usually  take 
plural  verbs:  scissors,  suds,  tongs,  proceedi^s.^ 
victuals,  riches,  trousers,  vitals,  dregs,  pincers,  nup- 
tials, eaves,  ashes,  oats,  assets.  Such  points  in  Eng- 
lish are  determined  by  usage  and  the  student  does 
well  to  consult,  in  such  cases,  a  large  dictionary, 
which  is  supposed  to  reflect  good  usage. 

Exercise  60 

Write  the  follozving  nouns  in  tivo  columns,  the 
singular  in  one  and  the  plural  in  the  other.  Con- 
sult your  dictioviarics  for  the  correct  spelling  of 
inan\'  zvords: 


book 

money 

wife 

knife 

sin 

strife 

Hfe 

fife 

desk 

cargo 

negro 

folio 

church 

quarto 

trio 

no 

witness 

men 

ox 

mice 

olory 

teeth 

geese 

P 

sky 

q 

6 

7 

money 

+ 

* 

brother-in-law 

court-martial 

wagon-load 

ox-cart 

knight-templar 

Miss  Seward 

Mr.  Casad 

Sir  John 

Sir  Isaac  Newl 

Dr.  Benson 

Mrs.  Smith 

l)rother 

die 

fish 

genius 

index 

])enny 

pea 

Sarah 

nh 

ah 

calculus 

arcanum 

criterion 

thesis 

analysis 

vinega' 

hemp 

darkness 

oil 

ashes 

assets 

bellows 

clothes 

scissors 

shears 

tongs 

news 

molasses 

lungs 

alms 

208 


An  English  Grammar 


corps 

mumps 

measles 

odds 

riches 

scries 

suds 

tidings 

wages 

ethics 

politics 

mathematics 

optics 

physics 

pedagogics 

sheep 

4de€^ 
gross 

couple 

salmon 

trout 

hose 

yoke 

hiss 

adz 

sash 

embryo 

grotto 

oratorio 

buffalo 

mosquito 

tomato 

potato 

valley 

chimney 

money 

duty 

spy 

cow 

foot 

bandit 

cherub 

formula 

memorandum 

focus 

terminus 

erratum 

medium 

axis 

genus 

automaton 

hypothesis 

basis 

crisis 

ellipsis 

Mrs. 

Mr. 

eaves 

custom 

letter 

number 

pain 

part 

liberty 

virtue 

vices 

head 

attorney-general 

belief 

brief 

bluff 

cliff 

staff 

ditty 

daisy 

baby 

buoy 

turkey 

berry 

fairy 

soliloquy 

tray 

Chinese 

Japanese 

for^et-me- 

-not   corral 

aborigines 

hose 

1 60.  Case.  In  Section  59  we  found  that  the 
notm  may  be  used  in  the  sentence  in  the  follow- 
ing different  relations  or  ways.  It  may  be  used 
as  subject,  predicate,  in  direct  address,  inde- 
pendently, or  as  an  appositive  modifier  of  any 
one  of  these.  These  uses  or  relations  of  the  noun 
to  other  words  in  the  sentence  are  called  the 
nominative  relation. 

It  may  be  used  as  a  possessive  modifier  or  in 
apposition  with  it.  These  uses  constitute  the 
possessive  relation  of  the  noun  in  the  sentence. 


The  Noun  209 

It  may  be  used  as  direct  objective  modifier,  in- 
direct ol)jective  modifier,  adverbial  objective  modi- 
fier, principal  part  of  a  prepositional  phrase,  sub- 
ject or  predicate-like  element  of  a  clausal  phrase  or 
in  apposition  witli  any  one  of  these.  These  uses 
constitute  the  objective  relation. 

i6i.  Case  Defined.  Case  is  that  property  of  a 
substantive  word  which  is  the  relation  that  the 
substantive  word  bears  to  the  other  words  in  the 
sentence. 

162.  Classes  of  Case.  Since,  as  we  have  seen 
in  Section  160,  all  the  uses  of  substantive  words 
in  the  sentence  may  be  grouped  into  three  kinds 
of  relations,  substantive  words  have  three  cases: 
nominative,  possessive,  and  objective. 

163.  Nominative  Case  Defined.  The  nomina- 
tive case  is  the  case  of  the  substantive  word  that 
stands  in  a  nominative  relation  in  the  sentence; 
as.  The  truth  zvas  revealed. 

164.  The  Possessive  Case  Defined.  The  pos- 
sessive case  is  the  case  of  the  substantive  word 
that  stands  in  a  possessive  relation  in  the  sen- 
tence; as,  The  king's  time  had  come. 

165.  The  Objective  Case  Defined.  The  ob- 
jective case  is  the  case  of  the  substantive  word 
that  stands  in  an  objective  relation  in  the  sen- 
tence; as,  Th.e  missionaries  shozved  the  people  how 
to  improve. 


210  An  Enf^lish  Grammar 

Exercise  6i 

In  the  folhiiing  sc  'fences  point  out  the  nouns, 
give  the  case  of  each,  and  the  reasons: 

1.  Blue  Island  is  a  town  situated  on  a  bluff,  which 
rises  abruptly  from   a  prairie. 

2.  Mrs.  Squeers  administered  the  brimstone  and  treacle 
with  a  common  wooden  spoon  which  widened  every  young 
gentleman's  moutli  considerably. 

3.  They  scaled  Mont  Blanc,  the  great  mountain. 

4.  Simple  races,  as  savages,  do  not  climb  mountains; 
their  tops  are  sacred  and  mysterious  tracts  never  visited  by 
them. 

5.  This  house  was  Longfellow,  the  poet's,  home. 

6.  James,  the  student,  is  a  writer,  a  journalist. 

7.  You,  a  farmer,  may  be  a  scholar. 

8.  Children,  be  honest  and  true. 

9.  We  spoke  of  Tennyson,  the  great  poet. 

10.  Blaine  died  in  Washington  city,  the  capital  of  the 
United  States. 

11.  He  gave  me  the  book. 

12.  They  walked  ten  miles,  a  long  distance. 

13.  They  wished  him  to  study  law. 

14.  James  believed  the  man  to  be  honest. 

15.  "Now,  Heaven  forgive  me!"  said  Sir  William 
Howe  to  himself. 

166.  How  Case  is  Denoted.  Tn  the  Old  Eno- 
lish  and  Anglo-Saxon  speech  nouns  had  difTerent 
forms  for  different  cases.  These  case  endings 
have  been  gradually  dropped  until  at  present  we 
have  only  one  relic  of  them  remaining,  the  sign 
of  the  possessive  case.  There  is  no  diiTference  in 
the  forms  of  the  nominative  and  objective  cases, 


The  Noun  211 

but  the  possessive  case  may  always  be  known  by 
the  form  of  the  word.  The  nominative  and  ob- 
jective cases  must  always  be  told  by  the  context 
or  meaning. 

167.  Possessive  Case  Forms.  The  possessive 
forms  of  nouns  in  the  singular  number  are  made  as 
a  rule  by  adding  an  apostrophe  and  .y  ('s)  to  the  sim- 
ple form  of  the  noun;  as,  The  owrs  nest  is  large. 

If  the  addition  of  the  s,  however,  makes  an  un- 
pleasant hissing  sound,  it  is  omitted,  but  the  apos- 
trophe is  retained ;  as,  Moses'  law  was  given  to  the 
children  of  Israel. 

The  tendency  in  modern  English,  however,  is  to 
add  the  apostrophe  and  ^  to  most  nouns,  even  though 
they  end  in  s;  as,  Harris's  logic  is  helpful  to  stu- 
dents. Dickens's  "David  CopperHeld"  is  interest- 
ing.   Charles's   reign  was  not  successful. 

The  plural  of  nouns  which  end  in  s  form  the  pos- 
sessive case  by  adding  the  apostrophe  alone;  as, 
Girls'  hats  are  sold  here. 

If  the  plural  does  not  end  in  s,  the  possessive  is 
formed  as  in  the  singular  number  by  adding  the 
apostrophe  and  the  .9  ('s) ;  as,  Children's  toys  may 
be  found  within.     The  oxen's  yokes  were  heavy. 

The  possessive  case  of  compound  nouns  and 
complex  expressions  used  as  nouns  is  formed  by  add- 
ing the  proper  sign  of  the  possessive  to  the  end  of 
the  expression;  as,  The  captain  of  the  Elbe's  wife 


212  An  English  Grammar 

was  absent.  My  sister-in-law's  address  is  New 
York. 

When  two  or  more  persons  possess  a  thing  in 
common,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  is  attached  to 
the  last  name  only ;  as,  Barnum  and  Bailey's  circus 
is  still  on  the  road. 

Separate  ownership  is  indicated  by  adding  the 
sign  of  the  possessive  to  each  name;  as,  Webster's 
and  Worcester's  dictionaries  are  in  the  library. 

The  expression,  Anybody  else's  request  zvould 
be  denied,  is  better  usage  than  the  expression,  Any- 
body's else  request  zvould  be  denied,  but  on  the 
other  hand  we  should  always  say,  Whose  else  could 
be  granted?  not,  Who  else's  could  be  granted? 

Exercise  62 

Form  the  correct  posscssives  in  the  following 
sentences: 

1.  The  sailors  life  was  in  danger. 

2.  Childrens  plays  should  be  made  a  means  of  educat- 
ing them. 

3.  Mens  destinies  are  in  their  own  hands. 

4.  Daniel  Websters  speeches  are  marvels  of  oratory. 

5.  The  Bishop  of  Dublin  palace  was  destroyed  by  fire. 

6.  Baker  and  Watsons  store  has  been  sold. 

7.  Webster  and  Worcester's  dictionaries  are  much  in 
demand. 

8.  Her  Majesty,  Queen  Victorias  government,  has  been 
much  disturbed. 

9.  The  captain  of  the  Elbes  wife  was  lost  when  the 
vessel  sank. 

10.  The  knight  templars  costume  was  the  most  costly. 


The  Noun  213 

11.  My  brother-in-laws  house  was  destroyed  by  fire. 

12.  Do  no  wrong  for  conscience  sake. 

13.  The  princess  oown  sparkled  with  jewels. 

14.  She  had  taken  them  all  into  her  great  heart, — the 
boys  sorrows  and  the  girls  cares. 

15.  Mrs.  Cass  appearance  gave  life  to  the  occasion. 

16.  Jonas  Russ  slate  made  the  noise. 

17.  I  had  the  money  changed  at  Sloan  the  druggist. 

18.  His  character  stands  out  when  you  compare  it  with 
his  uncle  Henry  of  Hanover. 

19.  I  would  not  have  taken  anybody  else  word  for  it. 

20.  I  have  granted  your  request  but  not  anybody  else ; 
who  elses  could  I  grant? 

21.  We  frequently  buy  books  at  the  shop  of  Mr.  Horns 
on  the  Circle. 

22.  In    spite    of   the    guards    precautions,    the    prisoner 
escaped. 

23.  James  task  was  finished  early. 

24.  Moses  law  was  formal. 

25.  Frances  share  of  the  fortune  was  badly  managed. 

26.  Xerxes  army  v.'as  victorious. 

27.  The  woman  would  accept  neither  her  neighbors  nor 
the  countys  assistance. 

28.  Joris  strength  failed  before  he  got  to  Aix. 

29.  I  arranged  for  the  money  at  Hill  the  banker. 

168.  Declension.    To  decline  a  notin  is  to  o^ive 
all  its  number  and  case  forms  as  follows: 

Singular  Plural 

Nominative,  girl  Nominative,  girls 

Possessive,  girl's  Possessive,  girls* 

Objective,  girl  Objective,  girls 


214  An  English  Grammar 

Exercise  63 

From  the  expressions  ineloscd  in  marks  of  pa- 
renthesis in  each  of  the  following  sentences,  select 
the  correct  one,  and  give  the  reasons. 

1.  I   had  a   full   understanding  of  the    (fact's  signif- 
icance, significance  of  the  fact). 

2.  (Congress's  act,  the  act  of  Congress)  was  approved 
by  the  people. 

3.  (My  zmfe's  picture,  picture  by  my  wife)  became 
f  imous. 

4.  He  is  a  stranger  (in  the  midst  of  us,  in  our  midst). 

5.  Do  not  remain  (on  our  account,  on  account  of  us). 

6.  He  carried  (a  dice,  die)  in  his  vest  pocket  as  a 
mascot. 

7.  The  millenium  is  yet  a  great  (zuay,  ways)  off. 

8.  The  news  (zvas,  were)  received  with  a  great  demon- 
stration. 

9.  (This,  these)   news  created  great  consternation. 

10.  He  rose  to  distinction  between  the  twenty-fourth 
and  twenty-fifth  (year,  years)  of  his  life. 

11.  Are  you  an  (alumni,  alumnus)  of  this  school? 

12.  When  I  looked  through  the  microscope  I  saw  a 
(bacterium,  bacteria). 

13.  Do  you  approve  the  change  in  the  (curricula,  cur- 
riculum) f 

14.  (This,  these)  scanty  data   (is,  are)  not  sufficient. 

15.  Agassiz's  (dictum,  dicta)   was,  "  Study  the  fish." 

16.  This  (phenomenon,  phenomena)  was  observed  many 
times. 

17.  Did  you  see  the  (harpist,  harper)? 

18.  Do  you  expect  a  (rise,  raise)  in  wages? 

19.  Is  this  the  (person,  party)  in  question? 

20.  We  are  not  looking  at  the  question  from  the  same 
(point  of  view,  standpoint). 


The  Noun  215 

Exercise  64 

Indicate  the  nouns  in  the  following  sentences, 
and  note  the  foil  'wing  points: 

1.  Classify  the  noun  on  the  different  bases, 

stating  the  basis  in  each  case. 

2.  Decline  it. 

J.  Give  its  properties  in  the  order  in  which 
zve  have  worked  them  out. 

1.  Lowliness  is  young  Ambition's  ladder, 
Whereto  the   climber-upward   turns  his   face ; 
But  when  he  once  attains  the  upmost  round, 
He  straight  unto  the  ladder  turns  his  back, 
Looks  in  the  clouds,  scorning  the  base  degrees 
By  which  he  did  ascend. 

2.  His  power,  like  to  a  fangless  lion. 
May  offer,  but  not  hold. 

3.  This  rudeness  is  a  sauce  to  his  good  wit. 
Which  gives  a  man  stomach  to  digest  his  words 
With  better  appetite. 

4.  And  why  should  Caesar  be  a  tyrant  then  ? 
Poor  man  !     I  know  he  would  not  be  a  wolf 
But  that  he  sees  the  Romans  are  but  slieep : 
He  were  no  lion,  were  not  Romans  hinds. 

5.  If  we  do  not  make  our  atonement  well. 
Our  peace  will,  like  a  broken  limb  united, 
Grow  stronger  for  the  breaking. 


2i^  An  English  Grammar 

Work  in  Composition 

TJic  Cliaracfcr  Sketch 

RATISBON 
I. 

You  know,  we  French  stormed  Ratisbon 

A  mile  or  so  away 
On  a  little  moimd,  Napoleon 

Stood  on  our  storming  dav : 
With  neck  out-thrust,  you   fancy  how, 

Legs  wide,  arms  locked  behind, 
As  if  to  balance  the  prone  brow 

Oppressive  with  its  mind. 

11. 

Just  as  perhaps  he  mused  "  My  plans 

That  soar,  to  earth  may  fall. 
Let  once  my  army-leader   Lannes 

Waver  at  yonder  wall  " — 
Out  'twixt  the  battery-smokes  there  flew 

A  rider,  bound  on  bound 
Full-galloping;   nor  bridle   drew 

L'ntil  he  reached  the  mound. 

in. 

Then  ofi:'  there  flung  in  smiling  joy, 

And  held  himself  erect 
By  just  his  horse's  mane,  a  bov  : 

You  hardly  could  suspect — 
(So  tight  he  kept  his  lips  compressed, 

Scarce  any  blood   came  through) 
You  looked  twice  ere  you  saw  his  breast 

Was  all  but  shot  in  two. 


The  Noun  217 

IV. 
"  Well,"  cried  he,  "  Emperor,  by  God's  grace 

We've  got  you  Ratisbon ! 
The   Marshal's  in   the  market-place. 

And  you'll  be  there  anon 
To  see  your  flag-bird  flap  his  vans 

Where  I.  to  heart's  desire. 
Perched  him!"    The  chief's  eye   flashed;  his  plans 

Soared  up  again  like  fire. 

V. 

The  chief's  eye  flashed  :  but  presently 

Softened  itself,  as  sheathes 
A  film  the  mother-eagle's  eye 

When  her  bruised  eaglet  breathes. 
"  You're  wounded !  "    "'  Nay."   the  soldier's  pride 

Touched  to  the  quick,  he  said: 
"I'm  killed.   Sire!"     And   his  chief  beside. 

Smiling,  the  boy  fell  dead. 

— Robert  Brozvning. 

Read  the  poem  called  "Ratisbon." 

]Vho  is  the  hero?  Why  is  he  a  hero?  Find  ont 
from  the  poem  as  much  as  yon  can  about  him. 

Write  a  character  sketch  one  paragraph  loiii^ 
giz'ing  your  idea  of  the  hero's  character,  and  the 
reasons  for  your  opinions. 

The  purpose  of  a  character  sketch  is  to  portray 
cliaracter. 

// 

Re-read  "  Ratisbon." 

Tell  the  story  briefly.    What  scene  is  suggested? 

What  is  in  the  foreground?    The  background? 

What  is  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere? 


218  An  E)iglis/i  Gramiiiar 

JVJiaf  do  yoii  like  about  the  poemf 
Outline  and  write  a  revieiv  of  "  Ratisbon." 
Read  your  paper.    Are  your  paragraphs  prop- 
erly related  through   an  introductoi y  paragraph? 
Does  eaeh  of  your  paragraphs  treat  of  one  topic  arid 
one  only?  Criticise  your  paper  in  other  ways. 

Ill 
Read  the  extract  from  "Evangeline?'  on  page 

30. 

What  ivere  some  of  the  traits  of  Evangeline  s 
character?  Hoiv  does  Longfellow  make  this  plain 
to  you?  Jl'liat  comparisons  come  to  your  mind 
which  woidd  suggest  her  beauty?  Her  modesty? 
Her  purity? 

Write  a  descriptiz'e  character  sketch  one  para- 
graph lojig  showing  Ez'angelinc's  character.  Use 
at  least  one  comparison  of  your  ozcii. 

Read  your  paper.  Does  it  giz'e  an  idea  of  Evan- 
geline's character?  Is  your  comparison  appropri- 
ate? 

IV. 

Study  the  picture  of  "  llic  Gleaner?'  facijii^  p(^^c 
218. 

What  do  you  gain  of  her  character  from  her 
attitude?   From  the  expression  of  her  face? 

Write  a  description  of  the  picture  which  de- 
scribes the  gleaner's  appearance  and  the  impression 
you  get  of  her  character.  Use  a  comparison  or  two 
if  you  can  think  of  any  that  zvill  help  to  make  your 
meaning  clearer. 


THE    GLEAN liK 


Chapter  XV 

THE  PRONOUN 

169.  The  Pronoun  Defined.  The  sentence, 
Harry  hung  Harry  s  hat  on  the  rack  when  Harry 
came  into  the  house,  is  awkward  and  unnatural. 
We  would  usually  say,  Harry  hung  his  hat  on  the 
rack  when  he  came  into  the  house. 

These  words,  Jiis  and  lie,  are  called  pronouns 
because  they  express  the  object  of  thought, Harry, 
without  naming  it. 

A  pronoun  is  a  substantive  word  that  ex- 
presses an  object  of  thought  without  naming  it; 
as,  They  wandered  in  the  woods. 

170.  Classes  of  Pronouns.  Study  the  follow- 
ing sentences : 

1.  He  is  my  friend. 

2.  What  can  you  do? 

3.  He  would  not  give  the  name  of  the  person  who  be- 
friended him. 

In  these  sentences  the  words,  he,  what,  you  and 
who,  are  pronouns  because  they  express  objects  of 
thought  without  naming  them.  They  differ,  how- 
ever, in  that  the  words,  he  and  you,  show  by  their 
forms  the  relation  between  the  objects  of  thought 

[219] 


220  An  English  Grammar 

expressed  by  them  and  tlie  speaker.     The  other 
pronouns  do  not  do  this. 

The  word,  what,  expresses  an  object  of  thought 
unknown  and  sought.  Tn  this  particular  it  is 
different  from  llie  other  two. 

The  pronoun,  zvho,  as  we  have  already  seen  in 
our  study  of  the  complex  sentence^  expresses  the  re- 
lation bctweeil  thoughts  of  unequal  rank.  No  one 
of  the  other  pronouns  does  this.  These  differ- 
ences enable  us  to  classify  pronouns  into  three 
classes:  personal,  interrogative,  and  relative. 
\  I.  The  Personal  Pronoun  Defined.  A  per- 
sonal pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  shows  by  its 
form  the  relation  of  the  object  of  thought  ex- 
pressed by  it  to  the  speaker;  as,  They  deceive 
themselves. 

2.  The  Interrogative  Pronoun  Defined.  An 
interrogative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  ex- 
presses an  object  of  thought  which  is  unknown 
and  sought;  as,  Who  ivas  the  oldest  jiianf 

3.  The  Relative  Pronoun  Defined.  A  relative 
pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  expresses  relation;  as. 
This  is  the  man  who  gave  the  leeture. 

Exercise  64 
Point  out   the  pronouns  in  the  following  sen- 
tences and  tell  whether  they  are  personal,  interroga- 
tive or  relative.     Give  a  reason  in  each  case: 

1.  I  am  a  poor  man  myself  and  I  can  s\mpathize  with 
you. 

2.  Natlian  said  to  him,  "  Thou  art  the  man." 


The  Pronoun  221 

3.  He,  himself,  acknowledged  his  fault  to  nie. 
-^   4.  The  book  which  the  child  has  is  not  worth  reading. 

5.  The  point  was  well  stated  by  the  child  when  he  saw 
it. 

6.  You  who  are  blessed  with  plenty  should  be  kina 
to  the  poor. 

7.  They  who  sow  in  folly  will  reap  in  sorrow. 

8.  I  will  not  pass  from  this  room  until  they  bear  me  to 
the  tomb  of  my  forefathers. 

9.  "Take  this,  good  Mistress  Dudley,"  he  added,  pui- 
ting  a  purse  into  her  hands. 

10.  But  Sir  \\'illiam  Howe,  if  he  ever  heard  this  legend, 
had  forgotten  it. 

IL  We,  ourselves,  are  at  fault. 

12.  Who  killed  Cock  Robin? 

13.  Our  fathers,  where  are  they? 

14.  Which  did  }0u  enjoy  more,tFiske  or  Ridpath? 

171.  Classes  of  Personal  Pronouns.     In  the 

sentence.  He,  Jniiisclf,  fold  uic  the  story,  the  pro- 
nouns, he,  and  himself,  rire  hoth  personal  pronouns. 
They  differ,  however,  in  form.  The  pronoun, 
he,  cannot  he  traced  hack  to  a  simpler  form  in  the 
Rni^^lish  language,  while  the  pronoun,  himself,  can 
1)e  traced  l)ack  to  the  words,  //////  and  self.  This 
difference  in  form  gives  tis  two  classes  of  per- 
sonal pronouns;  simple  and  compound. 

172.  Simple  Personal  Pronoun  Defined.  A 
simple  personal  pronoun  is  a  personal  pronoun 
which  cannot  be  traced  back  to  any  simpler  form 
in  our  language;    as,  /,  he,  it. 

173.  Inflection.  There  is  much  more  change 
of  form  to  indicate  the  properties  in  the  pronoun 


-22  An  English  Grammar 

I  ban  in  the  noun.  There  are  different  forms  of 
the  pronoun  to  indicate  gender,  number,  person, 
and  case. 

174.  First  Person.  The  forms  of  the  first  per- 
son may  be  indicated  as  follows : 

Singular  Plural 

Nominative,  I  Nominative,  we 

Possessii'c,  my,  mine  Possessive,  our,  ours 

Objective,  me  Objective,  us 

The  plural  forms  of  the  first  person  do  not  ex- 
press two  or  more  speakers,  but  the  speaker  and 
others  for  whom  he  speaks.  Sometimes  this  plural 
form  of  the  first  person  is  used  by  an  editor,  ruler, 
or  representative  to  avoid  the  use  of  the  pronoun,  /, 
and  to  lend  dignity  to  the  expression;  as,  "We 
feci  sure  that  the  people  zvill  not  accept  this  policy," 
zvrote  the  editor. 

175.  Second  Person.  The  forms  of  the  sec- 
ond person  may  be  indicated  as  follows: 

Singular  Plural 

Nominative,  thou  N ominative ,  you,ye 

Possessive,  thy,  thine  Possessive,  your,  yours 

Objective,  thee  Objective,  you 

The  pronoun,  thoii,  with  its  forms,  is  no  longer 
used  in  ordinary  conversation,  except  by  the  "Quak- 
ers "  or  Society  of  Friends.  These  forms  are  used 
in  poetry,  in  the  Bible,  in  prayer,  and  in  other  sol- 
emn forms  of  discourse.  In  modern  English  the 
plural  forms  are  used  also  for  the  singular. 

There  is  no  change  in  form  in  the  simple  per- 


The  Pronoun  223 

sonal  pronouns,  first  and  second  persons,  to  denote 
gender,  because  the  sex  of  the  person  speaking  and 
the  person  spoken  to  is  usually  known. 

176.  Third  Person.    The  forms  of  the  simple 
personal  pronoun,  third  person,  may  be  indicated 

as  follows: 

Masculine 


Singular 

Plural 

Nominative, 

Possessive, 

Objective, 

he 
his 
him 

they 

their,  theirs 
them 

Feminine 

Neuter 

Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

she 

her,  hers 
her 

they 

their, 

them 

theirs 

it 
its 

it 

they 

their,  theirs 

them 

Exercise  65 

Write  sentences  containing  the  different  forms 
of  the  simple  personal  pronouns,  first,  second,  and 
third  person. 

177.  Possessive  Forms.  Some  of  the  posses- 
sive forms  of  the  simple  personal  pronoun  are  used 
substantively.  They  express  both  the  possessor  and 
the  thing  possessed  and  are  equivalent  to  a  noun 
modified  by  a  possessive ;  as, 

1.  This  pencil  is  mine  :=  This  pencil  is  my  pencil. 

2.  Yours  is  on  the  table  =:  Your  pencil  is  on  the  table. 


2*24  An  English  Grammar 

178.  Peculiarities  of  the  Personal  Pronoun. 

1.  There  is  no  pronoun,  third  person,  singular 
number,  common  gender,  in  the  EngHsh  language. 
Usage  sanctions  the  use  of  the  masculine  form  to 
express  this  meaning;  as,  //  any  member  of  the 
class  has  forgotten  his  pencil,  he  zvill  please  raise 
his  hand.  In  case  we  wish  to  be  specific,  we  use  he 
or  she,  his  or  her. 

2.  The  pronoun,  it,  is  often  used  when  it  has  no 
definite  antecedent ;  as.  It  rains.  This  is  called  the 
impersonal  pronoun. 

3.  Such  expressions  as  liis  own.  my  own,  your 
own,  and  so  forth,  are  emphatic  forms,  used  for 
emphasis  and  are  taken  as  one  word. 

179.  Pronouns  or  Adjectives.  The  possessive 
forms  of  the  personal  pronouns  are  often  classed 
as  adjectives.  It  seems  more  logical,  however,  to 
class  them  as  pronouns.  The  form,  his,  is  only  an- 
other form  of  the  word,  he,  and  another  form  of  the 
same  word  is  him.  If  the  w^ords,  he  and  him,  are 
called  pronouns,  there  seems  to  be  no  good  reason 
for  calling  the  form,  his,  an  adjective.  It  is  true 
that  the  form,  his,  does  always  express  an  attribute 
of  an  object  of  thought;  but  so  also  does  the  pos- 
sessive form  of  the  noun.  No  grammarian  calls 
the  word,  boy's,  an  adjective:  yet  there  is  just  as 
good  reason  for  this  as  for  calling  his,  hers,  my, 
and  so  forth,  adjectives, 

180.  Compound  Personal  Pronoun  Defined. 


The  Pronoun  225 

A  compound  personal  pronoun  is  a  personal  pro- 
noun which  can  be  traced  to  a  simpler  form  in  our 
language;  as,  Tlicy  injure  only  themselves. 

i8i.  How  Formed.  The  compound  personal 
pronouns,  singular,  and  plural,  are  formed  by  add- 
ing the  suffix,  self,  to  the  possessive,  my,  first  per- 
son ;  thy  and  yoiw,  second  person ;  and  to  the  ob- 
jectives, liim,  her  and  it,  third  person.  The  plural 
compound  personal  pronouns  are  formed  by  adding 
the  suffix,  sehes,  to  the  possessives,  our,  first  per- 
son ;  your,  second  person ;  and  the  objective,  them, 
third  person. 

TJie  singular  forms,  then,  are  as  follows: 

myself  himself 

thyself  herself 

yourself  itself 

TJie  plural  forms  are  as  follozvs: 

ourselves  themselves 

yourselves 

182.  How  Used.  'Ilie  compound  personal 
pronouns  may  have  the  following  uses : 

1.  They  are  used  in  a  reflexive  sense;  as.  The 
boy  hurt  himself. 

2.  They  are  used  for  emphasis;  as,  Mary,  her- 
self, was  present. 

3.  They  are  sometimes  used  in  place  of  simple 
personal  pronouns:  as,  "Ourselves  ivill  see  this 
prisoner,"  thundered  the  king. 


226  An  English  Graniniar 

183.  Peculiarity  of  the  Compound  Personal 
Pronoun,  llic  compound  personal  pronouns 
have  no  case  forms.  They  are  used  only  in  the 
nominative  and  objective  relations. 

Exercise  66 

Fill  tJie  follozving  blanks  zvitJi  the  proper  pro- 
nouns: 

^  I.  Any  one  can  come^  if  — -^ —  is  invited. 
V    2.  Each  must  find    -■"  ^^ —  book. 

^i'-Mas-- everyone  -found  pencil  ? 

4.  Every  recitation    carries    with    it    own    re- 

sponsibihties. 
^    5.  Every  girl  can  succeed  if  is  industrious. 

6.  Either  Henry  or  W'ilHam  will  give  you  ^  as- 
sistance. 

7.  Each  person  is  requested  to  furnish  favorite 

dish. 

8.  Every  man  is  serious  in  saner  moments. 

9.  Soldier  after  soldier  came  carrying —  musket 

with  .  ,  '  ■  *.' 

10.  Each  of  the  boys  did  well,  at  least  in  own 

judgment. 

11.  Every  one  of  the  children  succeeded,  at  least  in 
own  way. 

12.  Whoever   loves  mother,   should   do  

best  to  make  life  easy  for  . 

13.  Every  brave  soldier  met death  with  unflinch- 
ing bravery. 

14.  Whoso  bridleth  mouth,  and  keepeth  

tongue  from  gossiping,  saveth trouble. 

15.  Everybody   believes    life    would   have   been 

more  of  a  success,  if  he  had  chosen  some  other  callinsf. 


The  Pronoun  227 

i6.  Each  child  is  requested  to  leave work  on  the 

table. 

17.  Every  man  is  expected  to  do duty. 

18.  Each  pupil  must  obey teacher. 

19.  Every  citizen  owes  a  duty  to  country. 

20.  Most  people  do  not  love enemies. 

184.  Interrogative  Pronoun.  Read  the  fol- 
lowing sentences: 

1.  Who  is  the  man?  7.  What  do  you  want? 

2.  Who  is  the  girl?  8.  Which  is  she? 

3.  Who  are  these  people  9.  Which  is  theirs? 

4.  Whose  is  this?  10.  Which  are  mine? 

5.  Whom  did  you  call?  11.  Which  do  you  prefer? 

6.  What  are  those? 

Notice  that  in  each  case  the  italicized  pronoun 
expresses  an  object  of  thought  that  is  unknown 
and  sought.  The  words,  who,  ivhose,  whom,  ask 
for  the  names  of  persons.  The  word,  what, 
asks  for  the  names  of  things.  The  word,  which, 
asks  for  a  selection  from  a  group  of  persons  or 
things.  We  call  such  a  pronoun  an  interrogative 
pronoun. 

185.  Interrogative  Pronoun  Defined.  An  in- 
terrogative pronoun  is  a  pronoun  which  expresses 
an  object  of  thought  that  is  unknown  and 
sought;  as.  Who  called  yoiif 

186.  Forms    of    the    Interrogative    Pronoun. 

You  will  notice  in  the  interrogative  pronouns  in 
Section  184,  that  the  word,  zvho,  is  the  only  one 


228  An  English  Grammar 

which  is  decHned.  The  forms  may  be  arranged  as 

follows : 

Singular  Plural 

Nominative^  who  Nominative,  who 

Possessive,  whose  Possessive,  whose 

Objective,  whorn  Objective,  whom 

These  interrogative  pronouns  do  not  show  by 
their  form  the  gender,  person  or  number  of  the 
substantive  word.  Only  in  the  case  of  the  word, 
zvho,  is  the  case  indicated  by  the  form  of  the  inter- 
rogative pronoun :  as,  Who  is  here?  Whose  book 
have  yoiif     Whom  do  yon  zvantf 

187.  Distinctions  in  Interrogative  Pronouns. 

Usually  the  word,  zvho,  asks  for  persons;  the  word, 
what,  asks  for  inanimate  objects;  the  word,  which, 
is  selective  in  its  use,  that  is,  it  means  that  one  is 
to  be  distinguished  from  a  number  of  persons  or 
inanimate  objects;  as,  Which  is  the  boyf  Which 
of  the  scenes  do  yon  most  admire?  Which  of  the 
hooks  have  you  decided  to  choose?  Sometimes  the 
word,  what,  refers  to  persons ;  as,  What  is  the  man? 
He  is  a  lazvyer.  In  such  cases,  the  word,  what,  asks 
for  the  occupation  in  distinction  from  the  word, 
who,  which  asks  for  identity;  as.  Who  is  she?  She 
is  Mrs.  Tolliver. 

Exercise  67 

The  mistake  most  commonly  made  with  the  in- 
terrogative pronouns  is  in  the  use  of  the  words. 


The  Fronoun  229 

who  and  whom.  '  The  tendency  in  modern  English 
is  to  discard  the  word,  whom,  using  the  word,  who, 
in  both  the  nominative  and  the  objective  relations. 
Careful  speakers  avoid  this  and  in  serious  discourse, 
it  is  inexcusable. 

Put  in  the  following  blanks  the  proper  form  oj 
the  pronoun,  who,  and  give  reasons: 

I. do  you  see? 

did  you  hear? 

will  you  select? 

did  you  ask? 

do  you  tUink  I  am? 

were  you  speaking  to? 

I  am  puzzled to  send. 

are  you  sending  it  to  ? 

do  you  think  me  to  be? 

I  know to  ask. 

I  do  not  see  — — —  he  has  given  it  to. 

was  speaking  to  you? 

did  you  say  wrote  the  letter? 

do  you  think  will  get  the  nomination? 

do  you  expect  to  invite  next? 

do  you  think  it  was  asked  me? 

I  do  not  know  will  go  for  me. 

She  is  going  to  invite  to  her  reception — I   do  not 


2 

3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

13 
14 
15 
16 

17 
18 

know 

19 
20 


should  I  see  vesterdav  but  mv  cousin? 


I  asked was  wanted. 


188.  Uses  of  Interrogative  Pronoun.  Notice 
the  use  of  the  interrogative  pronoun  in  the  follov/- 
ing  sentences :  The  speaker  asked,  "Who  is  Broek- 
ton?"     The  speaker  asked  who  Broekton  was. 


230  An  English  Grammar 

In  the  first  sentence  the  question  is  given  in  the 
exact  words  of  the  speaker.  In  the  second  sentence 
the  original  words  of  the  speaker  are  changed,  but 
the  same  meaning  is  expressed.  We  call  the  first 
a  direct  question;  the  second  is  called  an  indirect 
question.  A  direct  question  may  be  a  sentence  in 
itself;  as,  Who  was  Caniieldf 

Or  it  may  be  a  dependent  clause;  as,  The  man 
asked,  "What  is  protection?" 

Indirect  questions  are  always  dependent  clauses 
implying  inquiry,  ignorance,  doubt,  knowledge,  and 
so  forth;  as,  Harry  surmised  who  lie  zvas.  Harry 
found  out  zvho  he  was.  Harry  zvas  ignorant  of  who 
he  zvas.   Harry  explained  to  ns  zvho  he  zvas. 

When  the  interrogative  pronoun  is  used  in  a 
direct  question,  it  is  said  to  have  the  direct  use; 
as.  The  leader  said,  ''Who  zvill  volunteer f" 

When  the  interrogative  pronoun  is  used  in  an 
indirect  question  it  is  said  to  have  an  indirect  use; 
as,  James  asked '''""  who  the  man  zvas. 

Exercise  68 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out  the  inter- 
rogative pronouns,  and  tell  zvhether  they  have  the 
direct  or  the  indirect  use,  and  zvJiy: 

1.  Who  was  the  discoverer  of  America? 

2.  Who  were  killed? 


*  Be    careful    to    distinguish    the    interrogative   pronoun    in    the 
indirect  question  from  the  relative  pronoun. 


The  Pronoun  231 

3.  Which  are  the  boys  in  trouble? 

4.  Which  is  the  Jew  and  which  the  merchant  here? 

5.  I  know  who  killed  Cock  Robin. 

6.  I  will  tell  you  what  I  will  take. 

7.  What  are  these  people? 

8.  I  know  which  is  the  most  valuable. 

9.  What  is  the  man? 

10.  I  see  which  will  come  next. 

189.  Relative  Pronoun.  Tn  Sections  102-1 11 
under  the  complex  .sentence  the  relative  pronoun 
is  discussed.  Only  a  few  additional  points  are 
needed  here. 

A.  Forms  of  the  Relative  Pronoun.  We  no- 
tice that  the  word,  ivJio,  is  the  only  relative  pro- 
noun which  is  declined.  The  forms  of  it  may  be 
arranged  as  follows: 

Singular  Plural 

Nominative,  who  Nominative,  who 

Possessive,  whose  Possessive,  whose 

Objective,  whom  Ohjective,  whom 

B.  Distinction  in  Use.  We  are  often  told  that 
the  relative  pronoun,  that,  should  always  be  used 
in  the  limiting  adjective  clause  and  the  relative  pro- 
nouns, zvlio  and  zvhich,  should  always  be  used  in 
descriptive  adjective  clauses,  but  this  distinction  is 
not  observed  in  good  English.  It  is  impossible  to 
use  the  word,  that,  after  a  preposition  and  its  use 
in  the  limiting  adjective  clause  often  produces  a 


232  An  English  Grammar 

discii^reeable  combination  of  sound;  as,  That  man 
that  /  saw  today  was  a  genius. 

As  a  rule,  euphony  should  dictate  which  of  the 
three  relatives  to  use  in  any  adjective  clause. 

C.  Properties  of  the  Relative  Pronoun.  The 
gender,  person,  and  number  of  the  relative  pronoun 
are  never  indicated  by  its  form.  They  must  be  de- 
termined by  its.  antecedent ;  as,  /  who  speak  unto 
thee  am  he.  He  who  was  absent  lost  his  chance. 
She  who  caine  this  morning  is  my  sister.  They  who 
sow  zvill  reap. 

The  case  of  a  relative  pronoun,  however,  does 
not  depend  upon  its  antecedent;  but  only  in  the 
word,  zvho,  is  it  indicated  by  the  form  of  the  word. 
The  case  of  the  other  relative  pronouns  must  be  de- 
termined as  with  the  noun,  by  the  context. 

Since  relative  pronouns  must  agree  with  their 
antecedents  in  number  and  person,  the  form  of  a 
verb  used  with  a  relative  must  be  the  same  as  that 
which  would  be  used  with  its  antecedent ;  as,  These 
are  the  ladies  who  were  expected.  This  is  the  lady 
who  zvas  present. 

Exercise  69 

From  the  expressions  inclosed  w  the  marks  of 
parenthesis  in  each  of  the  follozving  sentences,  select 
the  correct  one: 

I.  He  is  one  of  the  most  popular  authors  that  (has, 
have)  ever  written  novels. 


The  Pronoun  233 

2.  The  house  is  one  of  those  that  (overlook,  overlooks) 
the  valley. 

3.  This  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  contributions  that 
(has,  have)  ever  been  made  to  science. 

4.  That  is   one   of  the   last   poems   which    (ivas,  zvere) 
written  by  Shelley. 

5.  It  was  one  of  the  best  shows  that   (has,  have)   ever 
been  seen  here. 

6.  He  is  not  the  first  person  that  (has,  have)  tried  and 
failed. 

7.  This  is  one  of  the  worst  boys  that  (is,  are)  now  in 
school. 

8.  One  of  the  girl's   many   good   qualities  that   (occur, 
occurs)  to  me  now  is  punctuality.  ^ 

Exercise  70 

Fill  the  follozviiig  blanks  zvifh  the  proper  form 
of  the  pronoun,  who,  and  give  your  reasons. 

1.  He  is  a  person  I  know  can  h&  trusted. 

2.  He  is  a  person  I  know  to  be  trustworthy. 

3.  I  saw  a  man I  have  no  doubt  was  your  friend. 

4.  We  send  only  persons we  can  trust. 

5.  He  entrusts  his  business  to  a  man  he  thinks 

will  look  after  it. 

6.  A   man   came   into   the   room  -; we  afterwards 

learned  was  an  actor. 

7.  We  have  found  the  child we  thought  had  been 

lost. 

8.  Then  a  tall  actor  appeared we  all  thought  was 

the  best  on  the  program. 

D.  Possessive  Forms  of  Relative  Pronouns. 

We   have   the   possessive   form,   zvhosc,   which    we 
tisnally  use  to  express  the  idea  of  possession  with 


2'S-i:  An  English  Grammar 

reference  to  persons;  as,  This  is  the  chihi  zvhose 
hook  zvas  lost. 

\\'hen  we  wish  to  express  the  idea  of  possession 
with  reference  to  inanimate  objects  or  lower  animals, 
we  usually  use  the  prepositional  phrase,  of  which. 
Sometimes,  however,  this  expression  produces  a 
harsh,  awkward,  unnatural  combination  and  in  such 
cases  it  is  better  to  use  the  word,  whose,  even  with 
reference  to  inanimate  objects  or  lower  animals. 
Euphony  must  be  our  guide  in  the  use  of  the  two 
expressions. 

Exercise  71 

Fill  the  follozving  blanks  with  the  word,  whose, 
or  the  expression,  of  which,  and  give  your  reasons. 

1.  This    is    the    gate    ( hinges),    (the    liiiiges 

■ )  were  broken. 

2.  This  is  the  tree  ( bark),  (the  bark  ) 

was  stripped  off  by  hghtning-. 

3.  These    are   the   books    ( pages),    (the   pages 

)  were  torn  out. 

4.  Here  is  the  dog  ( collar),  (the  collar ) 

was  lost. 

5.  The  reader  asked  for  a  book  ( name),   (the 

name )  we  had  never  heard. 

6.  That  is  the  man  ( hat) ,  (the  hat )  was 

lost. 

7.  There   is   another   phase  of  education    ( im- 
portance), (tlie  importance )  is  paramount. 

8.  Through    the    window    ( glass),    (the    glass 

)  was  dirty,  we  saw  the  dim  form  of  a  man. 

9.  Beneath  the  dish  ( cover),  (the  cover ) 

lay  on  the  table,  we  found  the  money. 


The  Pronoun  235 

10.  By  the  side  of  the  road   (- dust),  (the  dust 

)  was  deep  we  discovered  cool  water. 


E.  Relative  Pronoun  Omitted.  The  relative 
pronoun  is  sometimes  omitted;  as,  The  knife 
(zvhich)  I  left  on  the  table  zvas  gone.  The  zvoman 
(that  or  whom)  you  saw  zvas  my  mother.  It  is 
perseverance  (that)  enables  a  man  to  succeed. 

190.  Antecedent.  The  antecedent  of  a  pro- 
noun is  a  substantive  expression  which  denotes 
the  same  object  of  thought  as  the  pronoun;  as. 
My  brother,  who  was  anxious  to  get  home,  left  be- 
fore I  did. 

igi.  Parsing.  We  are  now  prepared  to  give 
all  that  may  be  known  about  a  pronoun.  This  is 
sometimes  called  parsing.    It  would  include: 

1.  Classifving  a  pronoun  into  the  smallest  known  class. 

2.  Declining  it. 

3.  Giving  its  antecedent. 

4.  Giving  its  gender. 

5.  Giving  its  number. 

6.  Giving  its  person. 

7.  Giving  its  construction. 

8.  Giving  its  case. 

Note:  Too  much  of  this  kind  of  work  at  one  time  is  apt  to  be- 
come monotonous,  and  mechanical.  The  pupils  should  be  able,  how- 
ever, to  answer  any  one  of  these  questions  whenever  they  are  asked 
to  do  so. 

Exercise  72 

Study  the  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences 
and: 


236  An  English  Grammar 

1.  Classify   each   into   the   smallest   known 

class. 

2.  Decline  it. 

J.  Give  its  antecedent. 

4.  Give  its  gender. 

5.  Give  its  number. 

6.  Give  its  person. 

7.  Give  its  use  in  the  sentence. 

8.  Give  its  case. 

9.  Tell  liozv  you  determined  these  properties. 
10.  Explain  any  irregularity  which  you  may 

discover. 

1.  Each  soldier  drew  his  battle  blade. 

2.  He  liveth  long  who  liveth  well. 

3.  One's  manners  show  one's  breeding. 

4.  The  person  who  doeth  good  hath  his  reward. 

5.  If  any  person  in  the  audience  objects,  he  will  please 
stand. 

6.  The  poor  widow  lost  her  only  son. 

7.  True  to  his  flag,  the  soldier  braved  even  death. 

8.  A  pupil  that  is  studious  will  learn. 

9.  He  who  runs  may  read. 

10.  He  desired  to  pray,  but  it  was  denied  him. 

11.  He  has  squandered  his  money,  but  he  now  regrets  it. 

12.  You  are  here  on  time,  Henry. 

13.  You  are  good  children. 

14.  Mine  eyes  have  seen  the  glory  of  the  coming  of  the 
Lord. 

15.  Thine  ears  have  heard  the  joyful  sound. 

16.  "We  formerly  thought  differently,  but  now  we  have 
changed  our  mind,"  wrote  the  editor. 

17.  Tt  thundered  as  it  seemed  to  me. 

18.  Come  and  trip  it  on  the  green. 


The  Pronoim  237 

19.  Well,  then,  Mistress  Dudley,  since  you  will  needs 
tarry,  I  give  the  Province  House  in  charge  to  you. 

20.  Try  to  see  yourself  as  others  see  you. 

21.  Let  every  pupil  use  his  own  book. 

22.  If  anyone  be  found  at  fault,  do  unto  him  as  you 
would  wish  to  be  done  by. 

23.  *You,  he,  and  I  were  boys  together. 

24.  A  friend  and  I  were  talking  the  matter  over. 
.     25.  Whoever  comes  will  take  your  place. 

26.  I  must  do  whatever  seems  best. 

27.  I  will  give  you  whatever  is  right. 

28.  They  censure  whomsoever  I  commend. 

29.  They  knew  not  what  it  was. 

30.  I  will  call  whomever  you  ask. 

Exercise  73 

From  the  expressions  inclosed  in  the  marks  of 
parenthesis,  select  the  correct  one,  and  give  your 
reasons: 

1.  {Its,  it's)  tower  leaned. 

2.  Is  that  friend  of  (your's,  yours)   with  you  yet? 

3.  He  was  a  man  (as,  zvho)  could  be  depended  upon. 

4.  He  adopts  the  same  rules  in  Sunday  school  {thai, 
as)  he  adopts  in  his  day  school. 

5.  Such  devices  {zvhich,  as)  you  have  in  mind  are  im- 
portant. 

6.  He  now  thinks  that  foolish  {zvhich,  what)  he  once 
thought  wise. 

7.  {What,  zjohatever)  can  the  man  want? 

8.  I  cannot  pay  {the  tzvo  of,  both  of)  them. 

9.  Oh,  if  it  had  only  been  {me,  I.) 


♦Note:  Notice  that  when  we  use  the  personal  pronouns  in  the 
same  sentence,  the  second  person  should  come  first,  the  third  next, 
and  the  first  last. 


288  An  English  Grammar 

10.  You  and   (I,  nie)  are  invited. 

11.  Our  father  brought  you  and  {I,  me)  a  present. 

12.  Wretched  people  console  themselves  when  they  see 
many  who  are  quite  as  {bad,  badly)  off  as  (them,  they). 

13.  Let  (him,  he)  who  made  thee  answer  this. 

14.  You  are  somewhat  taller  than  (mc,  I). 

15.  There  is  no  one  that  I  like  better  than  (he,  him). 

16.  I  am  sure  of  its  being  (he,  hiniy. 

17.  I  do  not  mind   (his,  him)  going  out  evenings. 

18.  He  was  associated  with  Longfellow  and  other  poets 
for  (which,  whom)  America  is  noted. 

19.  (Who,  whom)  shall  the  party  put  forward? 

20.  Find  out  (zvho,  zvhom)  the  hat  belongs  to. 

21.  (Who,  whom)  can  that  be? 

22.  I  saw  my  friend  (zuho,  zvhom)  I  once  thought  would 
succeed  in  business  fail. 

23.  She  lived  with  an  aunt  (zvho,  zvhom)  she  said 
treated  her  shamefully. 

24.  Then  came  another  man  (zvho,  zvhom)  they  all  de- 
clared was  the  best  of  the  performers. 

25.  Under  this  tree,  (the  bark  of  zvhich,  whose  bark) 
is  scarred  in  many  places,  Washington  took  command  of  the 
army. 

26.  This  is  a  point,  (the  consideration  of  zvhich,  zvhose 
consideration)  has  caused  much  trouble. 

27.  This  is  the  tree  (that,  which)  was  struck  by  light- 
ning. 

28.  To  come  so  near  to  winning  the  prize,  and  then  lose 
it,  I  never  could  stand   (it,  that). 

29.  She  is  a  better  student  than  (either,  any  one)  of  her 
three  brothers. 

30.  (Either,  any  one)  of  the  ten  points  is  worth  remem- 
bering, but  the  (latter,  last)  is  most  essential. 

31.  (All,  each)  of  the  children  took  an  apple. 


The  Pronoun  239 

32.  I  am  (the  one,  he,  the  person)  who  signalled  the 
train. 

33.  He  o'cts  Emerson's  ideas,  (the  ones,  those)  that  are 
most  essential,  on  first  reading. 

34.  When  (one,  a  person,  we)  (comes,  come)  to  tliink 
of  it  (he,  one,  ive)  (takes,  take)  (one's,  his,  our)  (life,  lives) 
in  (one's,  his,  our)  (hand,  hands)  every  time  (one,  he,  we) 
(board,  hoards)  a  train. 

35.  If  anyone  has  lost  baggage,  the  matter  will  be  in- 
vestigated for  (you,  him)  free  of  charge. 

36.  Soldier  after  soldier  took  up  the  cry  and  added 
(their,  his)  (voice,  voices)  to  the  mighty  din. 

37.  Everyone  was  absorbed  in  (hi^  or  her,  his,  their) 
own  pleasure,  or  was  bitterly  resenting  the  absence  of  the 
pleasure  (he  or  she,  they,  he)  expected. 

38.  Everybody  thought  it  right  to  extend  (his,  their) 
sympathy. 

39.  I  like  to  see  each  of  them  doing  well,  in  (their,  his) 
own  way  at  least. 

40.  Anybody  can  catch  trout  if  (he.  they)  can  find  the 
trout. 

41.  Everybody  was  there,  if  (he,  they)  could  possibly 
go. 

42.  He  heard  of  a  man  whose  life  had  been  spent  on  the 
water  and  (zvhose,  his)  record  was  good. 

43.  The  undersigned  is  sorry  to  say  that  he  took  a  hat 
from  the  rack  which  is  not  (mine,  his). 

44.  When  I  close  my  eyes  I  can  see  pictures  like  (the 
ones,  those)  presented. 

45.  The  two  brothers  love  (one  another,  each  other). 

Exercise  74 

Fill  the  follozving  blanks  zvifh  the  proper  forms 
of  the  ivord,  whoever : 


^*^  An  English  Grammar 

1.  The  old  man  put  the  question  to he  met. 

2.  I  am  satisfied  with you  have  selected. 

3.  I  am  ready  to  entertain rnay  be  sent. 

4.  The  Lord  loveth  ■ doeth  his  will. 

5.  You  must  restore book  you  have  taken. 

6.  Make  yourself  agreeable  to  you  meet. 

7.  Tell  the  truth  to  asks  it. 

8.  Contest  the  ground  with ^  opposes  you. 

9.  The  lady  iiiquired  of ■  she  saw. 

10.  The  missionary  preached  to remained. 


Chapter  XVI 

THE  ADJECTIVE 

192.  The  Adjective  Defined.  An  adjective  is 
an  attributive  word  which  expresses  an  attribute 
of  an  object  of  thought  and  does  not  express  a 
thought  relation;  as,  Tlic  green  leaves  tremble  in 
the  wind. 

193.  Classes  of  Adjectives  on  the  Basis  of 
Use.     Study  the  following  sentences: 

1.  The  United  States  is  large. 

2.  The  small  children  play  in  the  yard. 

You  will  notice  that  the  adjective,  large,  is  used 
in  the  predicate  of  the  sentence ;  while  the  adjective, 
small,  is  used  to  modify  the  noun,  children.  This 
difference  in  the  use  of  adjectives  gives  us  two 
classes  which  we  call  predicate  and  modifying  ad- 
jectives. 

194.  Predicate  Adjective  Defined.  A  predi- 
cate adjective  is  an  adjective  that  expresses  an  as- 
serted attribute;  as.  The  hook  is  heavy. 

195.  Modifying  Adjective  Defined.  A  modi- 
fying adjective  is  an  adjective  that  expresses  an 
unasserted  attribute;  as,  Fragrant  flowers  bloom 
by  the  zvay. 

[24ii 


242  An  English  Grammar 

Exercise  75 

Study  the  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences 
and  classify  them  on  the  basis  of  use;  give  your 
reasons: 

1.  These  rude  instruments  were  used  by  this  savage 
people. 

2.  All  the  government  officials  are  -well  paid. 

3.  The  sun  is 'bright. 

4.  Yonder  pond  contains  fish. 

5.  The  earth  is  round. 

196.  Classes  of  Adjectives  on  the  Basis  of 
Chief  Purpose.  vStiidy  the  adjectives  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1.  The  white  snow  hurts  my  eyes. 

2.  White  houses  soon  become  dingy. 

The  word,  white,  is  an  adjective  in  each  sentence, 
but  in  the  first  sentence  it  simply  emphasizes  an  at- 
tribute of  the  object  of  thought,  snow;  it  does  not 
narrow  the  meaning  of  the  word,  snow.  In  the  sec- 
ond sentence  the  adjective,  white,  narrows  the  mean- 
ing of  the  word,  houses.  This  difiference  in  the  chief 
purpose  of  the  adjective  gives  us  two  classes: 
descriptive  and  limiting. 

197.  Descriptive  Adjective  Defined.  A  de- 
scriptive adjective  is  an  adjective  the  chief  pur- 
pose of  which  is  to  emphasize  the  attribute  which 
it  expresses;  as,  Cold  ice  is  necessary  in  summer. 

198.  Limiting  Adjective  Defined.  A  limit- 
ing adjective  is  an  adjective  the  chief  purpose  of 


The  Adjective  243 

which  is  to  narrow  the  meaning  of  the  substan- 
tive word;  as.  This  book  is  mine. 

In  Robert  Browning's  "  Saul,"  on  page  103, 
notice  the  use  which  he  makes  of  these  classes 
of  adjectives.  \\'hich  class  does  he  use  more? 
Why? 

199.  Classes  of  Limiting  Adjectives.  Study 
the  follow  ing  sentences : 

1.  These  plants  were  blooming. 

2.  Thirty  persons  were  present. 

3.  The  child  is  ill. 

The  adjectJA-es,  these,  thirty  and  the,  are  all  lim- 
iting adjectives.  They  are  not  alike,  however,  be- 
cause the  adjective,  these,  may  be  used  substan- 
tively; as,  These  are  mine. 

The  adjective,  thirty,  expresses  number.  The 
adjective,  the,  simply  makes  definite  the  meaning  of 
the  substantive  w^ord,  child.  These  differences  in 
limiting  adjectives  give  us  three  classes:  pronom- 
inal, numeral,  and  articles. 

200.  Pronominal  Adjective  Defined.  A  pro- 
nominal adjective  is  a  limiting  adjective  which 
may  be  used  substantively;  as,  Thisw  most  beau- 
tiful. 

201.  Classes  of  Pronominal  Adjectives,      In 

the  following  sentences,  note  the  difference  in  the 
adjectives  which  they  contain : 

That  flower  is  beautiful. 

Which  girl  do  you  mean? 


244  An  English  Granimar 

Many  people  were  killed. 
Each  boy  does  his  best. 

You  will  notice  that  the  adjectives,  that,  which, 
many,  and  each,  are  all  pronominal  adjectives  be- 
cause they  may  be  used  substantively.  They  are  all 
different,  ho^^'ever,  because  the  adjective,  that,  ex- 
presses a  relation  between  the  object  of  thought, 
expressed  by  the  word,  flower,  which  it  modifies, 
and  the  speaker;  the  adjective,  zvhich,  expresses  an 
attribute  of  the  object  of  thought  which  is  unknown 
and  sought;  the  adjective,  many,  expresses  the 
idea  of  number  indefinitely;  the  adjective,  each,  ex- 
presses the  idea  of  separation  or  isolation.  These 
differences  between  pronominal  adjectives  enable 
us  to  divide  them  into  four  classes ;  demonstra- 
tive, interrogative,  quantitative,  and  distributive. 

202.  Demonstrative  Adjective  Defined.  A 
demonstrative  adjective  is  a  pronominal  adjective 
which  show^s  the  relation  betv^een  the  object  of 
thought  expressed  by  a  substantive  word  and  the 
speaker;  as,  That    boy  zvill  succeed. 

The  demonstrative  adjectives  are:  this,  tliat, 
these,  those,  yon,  yonder. 

203.  Interrogative  Adjective  Defined.  An 
interrogative  adjective  is  a  pronominal  adjective 
which  expresses  an  attribute  of  an  object  of 
thought    as   unknown    and    sought;     as.    What 

hook  do  you  desire? 


The  Adjective  -45 

The  interrogative  adjectives  are:  which  and 
zvhat. 

204.  Quantitative  Adjective  Defined.  A 
quantitative  adjective  is  a  pronominal  adjective 
which  expresses  the  attribute  of  number  or  quan- 
tity indefinitely;  as,  Few  people  ivere  present. 

There  are  several  of  these ;  much,  many,  all,  fezu, 
and  some  others. 

205.  Numeral  Adjective  Defined.  A  numeral 
adjective  is  a  limiting  adjective  which  expresses 
the  attribute  of  number  or  order  definitely;  as, 

Ten  people  zvere  in  the  house. 

206.  Classes  of  Numeral  Adjectives.  Notice 
the  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences  and  see 
how  they  differ: 

1.  Three  hours  had  passed. 

2.  The  third  boy  in  the  class  is  the  best  student. 

3.  A  fourfold  punishment  was  administered. 

You  will  notice  that  the  adjectives,  three,  third 
and  fourfold,  are  all  numeral  adjectives  because 
they  express  the  attribute  of  number  definitely. 
They  arc  all  different,  however,  because  the  ad- 
jective, three,  expresses  the  attribute  of  number 
only;  the  adjective,  third,  expresses  the  order  or 
l)lace  of  a  thing  in  a  series;  while  the  adjective, 
fourfold,  expresses  or  implies  the  idea  of  multipli- 
cation. On  account  of  these  differences  we  divide 
numeral  adjectives  into  three  classes:  cardinal, 
ordinal  and  multiplicative. 


-•i^  An  English  Grammar 

207.  Cardinal  Adjective  Defined.  A  cardinal 
adjective  is  a  numeral  adjective  which  merely  ex- 
presses number  definitely;  ns.  Five  l)irds  sat  on 
the  liml). 

208.  Ordinal  Adjective  Defined.  An  ordinal 
adjective  is  a  numeral  adjective  which  expresses 
the  position  or. order  of  a  thing  in  a  series;  as, 
Tlic  second  hoy  from  the  cud  of  tJie  rozv  is  my 
brother. 

209.  Multiplicative  Adjective  Defined.  A 
multiplicative  adjective  is  a  numeral  adjective 
which  implies  the  idea  of  multiplication;  as,  A 

double  Jwiisc  zvas  built. 

210.  Article  Defined.  An  article  is  a  kind  of 
limiting  adjective  used  before  a  substantive  word 
to  show  whether  it  is  to  be  taken  in  a  definite  or 
indefinite  sense;  as,  The    boy  appeared  promptly. 

211.  Classes  of  Articles.  Study  the  articles 
in  the  followiiii^'  sentences: 

1.  ("lO  into  tlie  room  and  bring-  me  the  book. 

2.  Go  into  the  room  and  bring  me  a  book. 

^^■e  can  see  that  in  the  first  sentence  the  article, 
the,  shows  that  the  word,  book,  is  to  be  taken  m  a 
definite  sense.  The  speaker  and  the  person  ad- 
dressed 1ia\'c  some  particular  1)ook  in  mind,  and  the 
article  shows  that  it  is  this  particular  book  that  is 
wanted.  In  the  second  sentence,  the  article,  a, 
shows  that  the  word,  book,  is  to  he  taken  in  an  in- 


The  Adjective  247 

definite  sense.  The  speaker  and  the  person  ad- 
dressed have  no  definite  book  in  mind,  but  any  book 
will  do.  This  dift'erence  in  articles  gives  lis  two 
classes :  definite  and  indefinite. 

212.  Definite  Article  Defined.  The  definite 
article  is  that  article  that  shows  that  the  substan- 
tive word  which  it  modifies  should  be  taken  in  a 
definite  sense;  as,  The  man  zvas  not  present. 

The  article,  tJie,  is  the  only  definite  article  in  the 
English  language. 

213.  Indefinite  Article  Defined.  The  indefi- 
nite article  is  that  article  which  shows  that  the 
substantive  word  which  it  modifies  is  to  be  taken 
in  an  indefinite  sense;  as,  A  man  came  into  the 
room.     An  a.ve  zvas  lying  in  the  path. 

The  articles,  a  and  aji,  are  the  only  indefinite 
articles  in  the  English  language. 

Exercise  76 

In  the  follozving  sentences  point  out  the  adjec- 
fiz'es  and  classify  them: 

1.  On  the  basis  of  use. 

2.  On  the  basis  of  the  chief  purpose. 

Put  limiting  adjectives  into  the  smallest  knouni 
classes,  and  give  your  reasons. 

1.  The  book  was  written  by  John  Fiske. 

2.  This  proposition  is  unreasonable. 

3.  Which  way  did  he  go? 

4.  What  book  do  you  most  prefer? 


9AS  An  English  Grammar 

5.  I  know  which  way  the  deer  went. 

6.  Few  ducks  were  seen  by  the  sportsman. 

7.  Some  money  was  earned  by  the  boys. 

8.  The  yellow  chicken  looked  at  the  big  frog  inquir- 
ingly. 

9.  Every  man  stood  to  his  post. 

10.  Neither  man  was  right,  and  yet  I  would  not  censure 
either. 

11.  We  were   i-nterested  in  watching  two  large  prairie 
fires. 

12.  Fifty  men  were  in  line. 

13.  James  is  the  third  pupil  in  the  row. 

14.  Washington  was   the  first  president  of  the  United 
States. 

15.  This  is  a  fourfold  punishment. 

16.  Let  us  make  a  double  house. 

17.  The  bright  dewdrops  were  glistening  on  the  leaves. 

18.  The  white  rose  is  beautiful. 

19.  He  who  dares  stand  for  the  right,  though  he  stand 
alone,  is  truly  brave. 

20.  The  river  is  a  mile  broad. 

21.  The  girl  is  cruel  to  her  pets. 

22.  A  child's  kiss 
Set  on  thy  sighing  lips  shall  make  thee  glad ; 

A  poor  man  served  by  thee  shall  make  thee  rich, 
A  sick  man  helped  by  thee  shall  make  thee  strong; 
Thou  shalt  be  served  thyself  by  every  sense 
Of  service  which  thou  renderest. 

Wo  rdszvo  rth. 

214.  Pronominal  Adjectives  Called  Pronouns. 

Some  grammarians  prefer  to  call  pronominal  ad- 
jectives, when  they  are  used  substantively,  pro- 
nouns; as,  That  is  yours.     These  are  mine. 

This  is  not  incorrect,  hut  it  seems  more  logical 


The  Adjective  249 

to  keep  the  words  in  the  same  class,  no  matter 
whether  they  are  used  substantively  or  attributively. 
When  they  are  used  substantively,  a  substantive 
word  can  always  be  supplied.  Those  are  fine,  is 
equivalent  to  Those  apples,  books,  flowers,  and  so 
forth,  are  fine. 

215.  Singular   and   Plural   Adjectives.      The 

only  adjectives  that  have  singular  and  plural  forms 
are  the  demonstrative  adjectives,  this  and  that.  The 
plural  of  the  adjective,  tJiat,  is  those,  and  the  plural 
of  the  adjective,  this  is  these. 

Be  careful  to  use  the  adjectives,  that  and  this, 
with  singular  nouns,  and  those  and  tJiese  with  plu- 
ral nouns;  as, 

1.  I  do  not  like  that  kind  of  book. 

2.  This  sort  of  roses  is  short-lived. 

3.  These  flowers  are  beautiful. 

4.  Those  trees  are  green. 

Exercise  77 

Fill  the  following  blanks  zvitli  the  proper  demon- 
stratii'c  adjectives: 

1.  I  do  not  see kind  of  goods  often. 

2.  We  want  no  more  of sort  of  lectures. 

3.  Where  are  you  going  with  boxes  of  pens? 

4.  Giildren  should  avoid sort  of  games. 

5.  He  combats  classes  of  theories. 

6.  We  dislike kind  of  weather. 

7.  He  helps  sort  of  people. 

8.  James  likes  kind  of  fruit. 


250  An  English  Craiiintar 

9.  Children  like kinds  of  games. 

10.  We  fear  kinds  of  animals. 

I  1.    I  like sorts  of  s])orts. 

216.  Comparison.  Notice  how  the  adjectives 
in  the  following-  sentences  are  ahke  and  how  they 
differ : 

1.  My  mother  is  tall. 

2.  My  father  is  taller. 

3.  My  brother   is   the   tallest  member   of   the   family. 

The  adjectives,  fall,  taller,  and  tallest,  express 
the  same  attribute,  but  the  adjective,  tall,  shows  that 
it  has  been  compared  merely  with  the  mind's  idea  of 
that  attribute.  The  adjective,  taller,  shows  that  the 
attribute  expressed  by  it  has  been  compared  with  the 
same  attribute  in  one  other  idea.  The  adjective, 
tallest,  shows  that  the  attribute  expressed  by  it  has 
been  compared  with  the  same  attribute  in  two  or 
more  other  ideas.  This  pro])erty  of  the  adjective 
we  call  comparison. 

217.  Comparison  Defined.  Comparison  is 
that  property  of  the  adjective  or  adverb  which 
shows  whether  the  attribute  expressed  by  it  has 
been  compared  with  the  same  attribute  in  another 
idea  or  merely  with  the  mind's  idea  of  that  attri- 
bute. 

218.  Degrees  of  Comparison.  The  dilTerence 
in  adjectives  noted  in  Section  216,  that  is,  that 
they  express  different  degrees  of  the  attribute, 


The  Adjective  i^51 

gives  lis  three  degrees  of  comparison,  positive, 
comparative  and  superlative. 

219.  Positive  Degree  Defined.  The  positive 
degree  of  comparison  is  that  degree  of  compari- 
son which  shows  that  the  attribute  expressed  by 
the  adjective  or  adverb  has  been  compared  merely 
with  the  mind's  idea  of  that  attribute;  as,  Red 
roses  arc  beautiful. 

220.  Comparative  Degree  Defined.  The  Com- 
parative degree  of  comparison  is  that  degree  of 
comparison  which  shows  that  the  attribute  ex- 
pressed by  the  adjective  or  adverb  has  been  com- 
pared with  the  same  attribute  in  one  other  idea ; 
as,  My  broth,  cr  is  taller  tliau  I. 

221.  Superlative  Degree  Defined.  The  super- 
lative degree  of  comparison  is  that  degree  of  com- 
parison which  shows  that  the  attribute  expressed 
by  the  adjective  or  adverb  has  been  compared 
with  the  same  attribute  in  two  or  more  other 
ideas;  as.  The  largest  boy  in  the  room  does  the 
poorest  ivork. 

222.  When  Used.  i.  The  jiositive  degree  is 
ahvays  used  when  the  attribute  expressed  bv  the 
adjective  or  adverl)  has  not  1)een  compared  with  the 
same  attribute  in  any  other  idea;  as,  The  blue  ,s7v'v 
is  overhead. 

2.  Tlie  comparative  degree  is  always  used  when 
tlie  attribute  expressed  by  the  adjective  or  adverb 


252  An  English  Graiunior 

has  been  compared  with  the  same  attribute  in  one 
other  idea ;  as,  To  be  good  is  better  than  to  be  great. 

3.  The  superlative  degree  is  used  when  the  at- 
tribute expressed  by  the  adjective  or  adverb  has 
been  compared  with  the  same  attribute  in  at  least 
two  other  ideas ;  as,  He  is  the  tallest  boy  in  his  class. 

The  words  expressing  the  ideas  in  which  the 
attribute  expressed  by  the  adjective  or  adverb  is 
found  are  called  the  terms  of  the  comparison. 
\\'hen  the  attribute  is  compared  in  only  two  ideas 
the  latter  term  excludes  the  former;  as,  Gold  is 
brighter  than  any  other  metal. 

When  the  attribute  compared  exists  in  more 
than  two  other  ideas  the  latter  term  must  include 
the  former;  as.  Gold  is  the  most  valuable  of  metals. 

223.  Kinds  of  Comparison.  \\'e  may  compare 
in  either  of  two  ways.  We  may  say,  heavy,  heavier, 
heaviest,  in  which  case,  the  positive  degree  expresses 
the  lowest  degree  of  that  attribute;  and  the  com- 
parative degree  a  higher  degree  of  the  attribute; 
and  the  superlative  degree  the  highest  degree  of  the 
attribute.  But  we  may  also  say,  heavy,  less  heavy, 
least  heavy,  in  which  case  the  positive  degree  ex- 
presses the  highest  degree,  the  comparative  a  lower 
degree,  and  the  superlative  the  lowest  degree  of 
all.  11iis  gi\-cs  us  two  kinds  of  comparison:  as- 
cending and  descending. 

224.  Ascending  Comparison  Defined.  As- 
cending comparison  is  that  comparison  in  which 


The  Adjective  -53 

the  positive  degree  of  the  word  expresses  the  low- 
est degree  of  the  attribute;  the  comparative,  a 
higher  degree  of  the  attribute;  and  the  superla- 
tive,  the   highest   degree   of  the   attribute;    as, 

beautiful,  more  beautiful,  most  beautiful. 

225.  Descending  Comparison  Defined.  De- 
scending comparison  is  that  comparison  in  which 
the  positive  degree  of  the  word  expresses  the 
highest  degree  of  the  attribute;  the  comparative, 
a  lower  degree  of  the  attribute;  and  the  superla- 
tive, the  lowest  degree  of  the  attribute;  as,  beau- 
tiful, less  beautiful,  least  beautiful. 

226.  Methods  of  Comparison.  Study  the  ad- 
jectives in  the  following-  sentences  and  note  how 
the  comparative  and  superlative  are  formed  in  each 
case: 

1.  Tall  trees  are  easily  blown  over. 

2.  I  am  taller  than  my  father. 

3.  The  tallest  boy  in  the  room  is  a  good  student. 

4.  The  boy  is  my  brother. 

5.  To  be  is  better  than  to  seem. 

6.  This  is  the  best  way  to  solve  the  problem. 

7.  While  she  is  the  most  strict  mother  I  know,  she  is 
also  the  most  pleasant  with  her  children. 

8.  This  way  is  the  longest. 

9.  The  long  pencil  is  lost. 

In  the  word,  fall,  you  will  notice  that  the  com- 
parative is  formed  by  adding  the  suffix,  er,  and  the 
superlative  by  adding  the  suffix,  est.  This  method 
of  comparison  we  call  inflection.    The  adjective, 


254 


An  English  Grammar 


/^Icascnif,  forms  its  comparative  with  the  word,  more, 
and  its  superlative  with  the  word,  most.  This 
method  of  comparison  we  call  composition.  Wii  ^  i 
the  adjective,  good,  we  use  the  word,  better,  for  tlu 
comparative;  and  the  word,  best,  for  the  superlative. 
We  call  this  method  irregular. 

Adjectives  of  one  sylla1:)le  and  many  adjectives 
of  two  syllables  are  usually  compared  by  inflection. 
The  tendency  in  modern  English  is  to  use  this 
method  more  and  more.  Longer  adjectives,  how- 
ever, are  usually  compared  by  using  the  method  of 
composition.  Euphony  has  much  to  do  with  de- 
termining- the  method  of  comparison. 

Exercise  78 

Compare  tJie  foUozving  adjeetives  and  use  them 
eorreetly  in  sentences;  consult  your  dictionary: 


beautiful 

pretty 

handsome 

awful 

dreadful 

lovely 

few 

less 

healthy 

healthful 

much. 

most 

well 

mad 

angry 

vexed 

quite  a 

elegant 

a  large 

a  considerable 

real 

a  orreat 

opposite 

contrary 

those 

drowned 

227.  Adjectives  Not  Compared.  Some  ad- 
jectives express  attributes  that  do  not  exist  in  dif- 
ferent degrees :  as,  perfect,  round,  circular. 

wStrictly  speaking  such  adjectives  cannot  be  com- 
pared, but  good  usage  sanctions  the  expressions, 
most  perfect,   straight  est,  squarest,  and  so  forth. 


The  Adjective  255 

Exercise  79 

State  the  meaning  of  each  of  the  following 
words  when  used  as  adjectives,  comparing  words 
in  the  first  colunm  with  those  in  the  second  when 
such  comparison  will  help  to  bring  out  the  meaning 
more  clearly : 


each 

every 

which 

what 

this 

these 

few 

less 

either 

neither 

a  or  an 

the 

that 

those 

each  other 
Exercise  80 

one  another 

JVatcli  carefully  flic  position  of  the  zvord,  only, 
in  all  sentences.  From  the  expressions  inclosed  in 
the  marks  of  parenthesis  in  each  of  the  follozving 
sentences  select  the  correct  one  and  give  reasons. 
Consult  your  dictionary  for  information: 

1.  The  boy  was  permitted  to  go  (everyzvhere,  every- 
zvheres). 

2.  My  daughter  may  be  described  as  (having  a  light 
complexion,  being  light-complected). 

3.  We  thus  had  more,  not  (less,  fezver)  friends. 

4.  One  can  hardly  think  of  a  man  (more,  better) 
suited  to  the  place. 

5.  The  people  had  never  seen  a  (costlier,  more  costlier) 
equipage. 

6.  This  is  true  of  (most,  almost)  all  of  my  friends. 

7.  Nobody  was  (like,  likely)  to  see  him. 

8.  The  town  was  (quite,  plenty)  large  enough. 

9.  There  isn't  a  (sightlier.  finer)  place  in  town. 
10.  Do  you  like  (this,  these)  sort  of  books? 


256  An  English  Grammar 

11.  How  do  you  like  (that,  those)  kind  of  gowns? 

12.  This  point  is  (easiest,  most  easily)  seen. 

13.  My  conscience  feels  (easily,  easy). 

14.  The  girl  looked  (prettily,  pretty). 

15.  The  teacher  feels  (bad,  badly)  to-day. 

16.  The  party  went  (solid,  solidly)  for  free  trade. 

17.  She  was  not  (only,  alone)  a  true  woman  but  a  kind 
friend  also. 

18.  The  boy  (only)  tried  (only)  three  times. 

19.  That  they  use  money  is  true  of  (both,  each)  party. 

20.  (Each,  every)  dog  has  his  day. 

21.  (Each,  every)  day  in  the  year  should  be  the  happiest 
day. 

22.  We  should  avoid  (many,  much)  of  the  baser 
struggles. 

23.  He  has  caught  (many,  much)  fish  to-day. 

24.  Will  (all,  the  whole)  finance  ministers,  and  uphol- 
sterers and  confectioners  of  modern  Europe  undertake  in 
joint  stock  company  to  make  one  shoeblack  happy? 

25.  Of  the  states  of  the  Union  named,  the  (first  four, 
four  first)  are  largest. 

26.  He  says  some  very  (aggravating,  irritating)  things. 

27.  In  consequence  of  some  very  (aggravating,  irritat- 
ing) circumstances  he  was  punished  severely. 

28.  Statements  like  these  seem  hardlv  (creditable,  cred- 
ible). 

29.  Here,  too,  Sydney  Carton  is  an  (exceptional,  excep- 
tionable) man. 

30.  I  shall  not  go  (further,  farther). 

31.  Rice  is  a  (healthy,  healthful)  food. 

32.  The  scene  from  the  window  was  (luxuriant,  luxur- 
ious). 

33.  The  boy  told  a  (pitiful,  pitiable)  story. 

34.  The  spider  spins  a  (subtile,  subtle)  web. 

35.  There  is  a  (continuous,  continual)  hurry  to  be  off. 


The  Adjective  257 

36.  The    sky    gradually    became    (cloudless,   more   and 
more  cloudless). 

37.  The  shouts  gradually  became   (more  and  more  in- 
audible, inaudible). 

38.  In    this    characteristic    Coleridge    is    (unique,    most 
unique). 

39.  The  vote  was  so  (unanimous,  so  nearly  unanimous) 
that  the  crowd  shouted. 

40.  We  go  about  professing  (total  isolation,  the  totalest 
isolation). 

228.  Parsing.  In  flic  folloiving  sentences  point 
out  tJie  adjectives. 

1.  Classify  them  into  the    smallest    knozvn 

classes  on  each  basis,  stating  the  basis 
first. 

2.  Compare  each  adjective. 

J.  Give  the  exact  use  of  each  in  the  sentence. 

1.  Old  Fezzi wig's  face  was  wreathed  with  benevolent 
smiles. 

2.  The  round  earth  moves  smoothly  on  its  way. 

3.  These  dangerous  savages  came  near. 

4.  Rude  noises  came  from  the  forest  in  the  rear. 

5.  Many  people  do  not  hesitate  to  say  harmful  things. 

6.  Sydney  Carton  is  one  of  the  finest  characters  in 
literature. 

7.  A  singular  verb  should  be  used  with  the  name  of 
the  United  States,  because  these  separate  states  form  one 
union. 

8.  Modern  Europe  is  on  friendly  terms  with  the  Ameri- 
cans. 

9.  The  large  window  was  entirely  shattered  by  the  ex- 
plosion. 


25fi  An  English  Grmnmar 

lo.  Cloudy  weather  has  a  dampening  effect  upon  the 
spirits. 

Notice  the  adjectives  which  Hazvthorne  uses  in 
the  extract  from  "My  Visit  to  Niagara,"  on  page 
68.  See  if  you  can  find  one  of  each  class  of  adjec- 
tives in  tJic  selection.  IVJiicJi  occurs  most  fre- 
quent lyf 


Work  in  Composition 

Narration 
YOUNG  LOCHINVAR 

O  Young  Lochinvar  has  come  out  of  the  West, 

Through  all  the  wide  Border  his  steed   was  the  best ; 

And  save  his  good  broadsword  he  weapon  had  none, 

He  rode  all  unarmed,  and  he  rode  all  alone. 

So  faithful  in  love  and  so  dauntless  in  war. 

There  never  was  knight  like  the  young  Lochinvar ! 

He  stayed  not  for  brake,  and  he  stopped  not  for  stone, 

He  swam  the  Esk  River  where  ford  there  was  none ; 

But  ere  he  alighted  at  Netherby  gate, 

The  bride  had  consented,  the  gallant  came  late : 

For  a  laggard  in  love,  and  a  dastard  in  war 

Was  to  wed  the  fair  Ellen  of  brave  Eochinvar. 

So  boldly  he  entered  the  Netherby  Hall, 

'Mong  bridesmen,  and  kinsmen,  and  brothers,  and  all. 

Then  spake  the  bride's  father,  his  hand  on  his  sword, — 

For  the  poor  craven  bridegroom  said  never  a  word, — 

"  O,  come  ye  in  peace  here,  or  come  ye  in  war. 

Or  to  dance  at  our  bridal,  voung  Lord  Lochinvar?" 


The  Adjective  259 

"  I  long-  wooed  }Our  daughter,  mv  suit  you  denied : 
Love  swells  like  the  Solway,  but  ebbs  like  its  tide  ! 
And  now   I  am  come,   with  this  lost  love  of  mine. 
To  lead  but  one  measure,  drink  one  cuj)  of  wine ! 
There  be  maidens  in  Scotland  more  lovely  by  far. 
That  would  gladly  be  bride  to  the  young  Lochinvar." 

The  bride  kissed  the  goblet :  the  knight  took  it  up, 
He  quafifed  off  the  wine  and  he  threw  down  the  cup  ! 
She"  looked  down  to  blush  and  she  looked  up  to  sigh. 
With  a  smile  on  her  lips  and  a  tear  in   her  eye. 
He  took  her  soft  hand,  ere  her  mother  could  bar, — 
"Now   tread   we   a   measure."'   said   young  Lochinvar! 

So  stately  his  form,  and  so  lovely  her  face. 

That  never  a  hall  such  a  galliard  did  grace. 

While  lier  mother  did  fret  and  her  father  did  fume. 

And  the  bridegroom  stood  dangling  his  bonnet  and  plume. 

And   the  bride-maidens  whispered,   "  'Twere  better  by   far 

To  have  matched  our  fair  cousin  with  \oung  Lochinvar." 

One  touch  to  her  hand,  and  one  word  in  her  ear. 

When  they   reached  the  hall   door,  and  the  charger  stood 

near. 
So  light  to  the  croupe  the  fair  lady  he  swung, 
So   light  to  the   saddle  before  her  he   sprung, 
"  She  is   won  !  we  are  gone,  over  bank,  bush,  and  scaur ; 
They'll  have  fleet  steeds  that  follow  !  "  quoth  young  Loch- 
invar. 

There  was  mounting  'mong  (iraemes  of  the  Xetherby  clan, 
Fosters.  Fenwicks  and  Musgraves,  the\-  rode  and  thev  ran  : 
There  was  racing  and  chasing  o'er  Cannobie  Lea, 
rhit  the  lost  bride  of  Netherbv  ne'er  did  thev  see ! 


2<»0  An  English  Grauiinar 

So  darin.q-  in  \o\w  anrl  so  dauntless  in  war, 
Have  yc  e'er  heard  of  ,!,^allant  like  young  Lochinvar? 

— Sir  Walter  Scott. 


I. 

Read  "  J.ochinvar." 

In  wliaf  difficulty  does  Lochiuvai'  find  himself F 
Hozv  does  lie  extricate  himself  from  his  difficultv 
and  win  his  f>ri,veF 

Write  the  story  of  I^ochinvar's  adventure  as  lie 
might  tell  it  himself,  as  his  bride  might  tell  if,  as 
the  "  poor  crazrn  bridegroom  "  or  as  one  of  tJie  par- 
ents might  tell  it.  Be  careful  to  keep  your  paper  in 
the  first  person  throughout.  For  study  of  person 
see  page  200. 

The  purpose  of  story  telling  (narration)  is  to 
show  how  certain  lines  of  action  lead  to  certain  re- 
sults. 

//. 

What  scenes  ivould  you  select  as  suitable  for  il- 
lustrations  of  the  poem?  What  titles  ivould  vou 
give  these  illustrations F 

Write  a  description  of  your  favorite  scene  in  the 
poem  of  "Lochinvar,"  zvhich  could  be  used  by  an 
artist  from  which  to  illustrate  the  poem. 

Read  your  Paper.  Have  you  made  your  picture 
so  clear  and  definite  that  you  yourself  cotdd  draw  iff 


The  Adjective  261 

What  ditferencc  do  you  find  in  tJie  cJiaracters  of 
Lochinvar  and  his  riz'alf  JVIiat  proofs  can  you  find 
for  your  opinions^ 

Write  a  comparison  of  the  tzvo  men.  Let  your 
introduction  he  a  statement  of  tlieir  differences  and 
the  follozving  paragraphs  a  statement  of  hoiv  these 
differences  iverc  sJwwn. 

IV. 

U^rite  a  rez'iew  of  " Locliinvar."  Let  ^he  first 
paragraph  characteri::e  the  poem,  tlie  second  tell 
about  the  chief  characters,  tlie  tliird  tell  the  stoi-y 
briefly,  in  the  third  person,  present  tense,  the  fourth 
describe  your  faz'orite  scene  and  the  fftJi  giz'C  your 
reasons  for  liking  the  poem. 

Interest  in  Story  Telling.  Xotice  how  the 
story  of  l.ochinvar  shows  a  knii^'ht  in  a  difficuU  sit- 
uation and  then  proceeds  to  teh  how  through  his 
1)ravery  and  daring  lie  extricates  himself.  Notice 
that  the  outcome  of  the  story  is  not  disclosed  until 
near  the  end.  This  keeps  one  interested.  Notice 
how  nnich  the  conversation  adds  to  the  interest  and 
helps  to  ])ortray  the  characters  of  the  people. 

Write  original  stories  on  one  of  the  follozving 
topics,  getting  somebody  into  and  then  out  of  a  dif- 
iiculty.  Add  to  the  interest  of  your  story  bv  haz'- 
ing  the  characters   talk  for  thcmselres.     For   the 


2^2  ,^ii  English  Gram  mar 

piuictuatiou  of  direct  quofatious,  sec  page  i/g,  sec- 
fioii  12  j. 

Afloat  on  a  Raft. 

How  Mother  Found  Out  that  Tim  Had  Been 
Swimmin£>'. 

A  Strange  Mishap. 

Why  the  Game  Was  Put  Ol|'. 


Chapter  XVII 

VERBS 

229.  The  Verb  Defined.  Tn  the  following  sen- 
tences notice  the  words  which  express  the  thought 
relation : 

1.  It  is  good  to  be  here. 

2.  To  find  fault  is  easy. 

3.  Slowly  and  sadly  we  laid  him  down. 

4.  The  fire  was  burning  on  the  hearth. 

5.  The  truth  gradually  came  out. 

The  words,  is,  laid,  was,  and  came,  expressing 
the  thought  relations  are  verbs.  A  verb  is  a  word 
which  expresses  a  thought  relation;  as,  TJie  sena- 
tor wanted  to  amend  the  motion. 

In  the  sentence,  He  had  spoken  well,  the  thought 
relation  is  not  expressed  by  one  word,  but  by  the 
expression,  had  spoken.  Most  grammarians  call 
this  expression,  had  spoken,  a  verb.  It  does  express 
the  thought  relation,  but  it  is  not  a  word.  When 
two  or  more  words  perform  the  office  of  a  single 
word  in  a  sentence,  we  have  called  such  a  group  of 
words  a  phrase,  and  it  now  seems  simpler  and 
easier  to  call  all  groups  of  words  which  express 
thought  relations  verb  phrases  instead  of  verbs. 

[263! 


204  An  English  Grammar 

230.  Principal  Parts  of  Verbs.  Study  the 
verbs  and  verb  phrases  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  The  sun  is  ninety-two  million  miles  away. 

2.  The  soldier  was  without  food   for  three  days. 

3.  Tom  Brown  has  heen  in  many  escapades. 

4.  The  general  gave  his  order  in  a  very  loud  tone. 

5.  The  sun  gives  light  and  heat. 

6.  Leland  Stanford  has  given  a  great  deal  of  money  to 
found  a  university  at  Palo  Alto. 

The  verbs,  is,  was,  been,  are  not  different  verbs, 
but  only  different  forms  of  the  same  verb.  This 
is  also  true  of  the  forms,  give,  gave,  and  given. 
No  matter  whether  we  wish  to  express  thought  in 
present  time,  past  time  or  future  time,  to  express 
completed  action,  or  incompleted  action;  or,  indeed, 
to  express  any  shade  or  phase  of  thought  whatever, 
we  must  use  some  one  of  these  three  forms  of  the 
verb.  We  call  the  three  forms  here  illustrated  in 
these  two  verbs  the  principal  parts  of  the  verb. 
The  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are  those  parts 
which  are  necessary  to  express  all  shades  of 
meaning  and  phases  of  thought  in  sentences;  as, 
ride,  rode,  ridden. 

231.  Names  of  Principal  Parts.  You  v^ill  no- 
tice that  the  form,  is,  or  gives,  expresses  a  thought 
relation  as  a  fact  in  the  present  time.  We  call  this 
form  the  present  indicative. 

On  the  other  hand,  zvas  or   ^^ave   are   used    to 


Verbs  265 

express  thought  relations  as  a  fact  in  past  time. 
We  call  this  form  the  past  indicative. 

The  forms,  been  and  given,  are  always  em- 
ployed to  express  the  thought  when  two  periods  of 
time  are  used  in  locating  the  thought  relation.  We 
call  this  the  past  or  perfect  participle. 

232.  Present  Indicative  Defined.  The  present 
indicative  is  that  principal  part  of  a  verb  which 
expresses  a  thought  relation  as  a  fact  in  the  pres- 
ent time;  as,  Tlie  sun  shines. 

233.  Past  Indicative  Defined.  The  past  in- 
dicative is  that  principal  part  of  the  verb  which 
expresses  a  thought  relation  as  a  fact  in  past 
time;  as,  TJie  man  rode  rapidly. 

234.  Past  Participle,  or  Perfect  Participle  De- 
fined. The  past  or  perfect  participle  is  that  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  verb  which  is  always  used  with 
an  auxiliary  to  express  a  thought  relation,  as  a 
fact,  in  a  period  of  time  beginning  in  the  past,  ex- 
tending up  to  and  including  the  moment  of  speak- 
ing; as.  She  has  sung  her  song. 

For  all  practical  purposes  it  is  accurate  enough 
to  say  that  the  present  indicative  is  that  form  of  the 
verb  which  expresses  a  thought  relation  in  the 
present  time;  the  past  indicative  is  that  form 
of  the  verb  which  expresses  a  thought  relation  in 
past  time;  and  the  past  or  perfect  participle  is 
that  form  of  the  verb  which  we  use  with  such  words 
as  has,  have,  had,  and  the  forms  of  the  word,  be. 


266  An  English  Grammar 


&• 


Exercise  8i 

In  the  follozviiig  sentences  point  out  the  verbs 
and  give  their  principal  parts: 

1.  The  minister  frequently  quotes  from  the  Tahnud. 

2.  Not  to  know  me  argues  yourself  unknown. 

3.  The  tree  fell  across  the  road. 

4.  The  child  merely  wants  his  rights. 

5.  Sleep  is  refreshing. 

6.  The  boy  can  swim  like  a  duck. 

7.  The  wind  blew  fiercely. 

8.  The  task  wearied  the  class. 

9.  The  sun  shines  through  the  window. 
10.  He  rose  at  break  of  day. 

235.  Classes  of  Verbs.  Study  the  verbs  in  the 
following  sentences : 

1.  The  tree  is  old. 

2.  The  rain  falls  in  torrents. 

It  is  easy  to  see  from  our  work  with  the  classes 
of  words  that  the  verb,  is,  in  the  first  sentence  ex- 
presses only  the  thought  relation;  while  the  verb, 
falls,  expresses  the  thought  relation  and  an  attribute 
of  the  object  of  thought,  rain.  This  difference  in 
the  meaning  or  kind  of  idea  expressed  by  verbs  gives 
us  two  classes;  pure  and  attributive. 

236.  Pure  Verb  Defined.  A  pure  verb  is  a 
verb  that  expresses  only  the  thought  relation;  as, 

The  boy  is  tall. 

237.  Attributive  Verb  Defined.  An  attribu- 
tive  verb  is  a  verb  which  expresses  an  attribute  of 


Verbs  267 

an  object  of  thought  and  also  a  thought  relation ; 
as,  The  boy  studies  diligently. 

238.  Classes  of  Attributive  Verbs.  Study  tlie 
verbs  in  the  following  sentences,  classify  them  on 
the  basis  of  the  kind  of  idea  expressed,  and  note  the 
nature  of  the  attribute  expressed  by  the  attributive 
verl)s: 

1.  James  struck  the  ball. 

2.  The  flowers  bloom. 

You  will  notice  that  the  attribute  expressed  Iw 
the  word,  stritek,  is  put  forth  by  the  object  of 
thought  expressed  by  the  word,  James,  and  that  it 
passes  over  to  or  goes  out  to  or  affects  the  object 
of  thought  expressed  by  the  word,  ball.  In  other 
words,  the  object  of  thought  expressed  by  the  word, 
ball,  received  the  attribute  expressed  by  the  word, 
struck.  Tlie  attribute  expressed  by  this  verb  is  of 
such  a  nature  that  it  requires  an  object  of  thought 
upon  which  it  may  terminate.  We  cannot  think 
of  striking  without  striking  something,  or  selling 
without  selling  something,  or  buying  without  buy- 
ing something'. 

Now  tlie  attribute  expressed  1)}'  the  verb,  bloom, 
in  the  second  sentence  is  not  of  such  a  nature  as  to 
require  an  object  of  thouglit  upon  which  it  may 
terminate.  The  attriljulc  docs  not  go  out  from  the 
thought  subject  to  some  other  object  of  thought. 
When  we  think  of  blooming,  we  do  not  think  of 
blooming  anything,  or  when  we  think  of  walking 


268  An  English  Grammar 

we  do  not  think  of  zvaiking  anything,  or  when  we 
think  of  talkmg  we  do  not  think  of  talking  anything. 
The  attributes  expressed  by  these  verbs  are  dififer- 
ent  in  their  nature.  This  makes  us  call  the  at- 
tributive verb,  struck,  a  transitive  verb,  and  the 
attributive  verb,  bloom,   an  intransitive  verb. 

239.  Transitive  Verb  Defined.  A  transitive 
verb  is  an  attributive  verb  which  expresses  an  at- 
tribute of  such  a  nature  as  to  require  an  object  of 
thought  upon  which  it  may  terminate;  as,  The 
boy  brought  Jiis  htncJi. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  this  object  of  thought 
upon  which  the  attribute  terminates  be  expressed. 
We  may  have  a  transitive  verb  which  does  not  take 
a  direct  objective  modifier;  as,  /  will  buy  zvith  yon. 

240.  Intransitive  Verb  Defined.  An  intransi- 
tive verb  is  an  attributive  verb  which  expresses  an 
attribute  of  such  a  nature  as  to  require  no  object 
of  thought  upon  which  it  may  terminate;  as,  He 
travels  by  rail. 

Exercise  82 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out  the  verbs, 
classifying  them  on  the  basis  of  the  kind  of  idea 
expressed,  and  then  classify  the  attributive  verbs  as 
transitive  or  intransitive: 

1.  Hitch  your  wagon  to  a  star. 

2.  Fulton  invented  the   steamboat. 

3.  The  robin  picked  up  the  crumbs  after  hopping  in  at 
the  window. 


Verbs  269 

4.  We  heard  a  higlily  instructive  lecture. 

5.  We  walked  along  the   fragrant  lanes. 

6.  We  talked  of  pleasant  times  in  olden  da}s. 

7.  We  journeyed  through  the  iields  together. 

8.  John  Anderson,  my  jo,  John, 
We  clamb  the  hills  together ; 
And  mony  a  canty  day,  John, 
We've  had  wi'  ane  anither : 

Now  we  maun  totter  down,  John, 

But  hand  in  hand  we'll  go ; 

An'  sleep  thegither  at  the  foot, 

John  Anderson,  my  jo.  — Burns. 

241.  Classes  of  Verbs  on  the  Basis  of  How 
the  Past  Indicative  and  Perfect  Participle  are 
Formed.  Give  the  principal  parts  of  the  verbs  in 
the  following  sentences:  Mary  zvrote  a  letter.  The 
girl  walked  in  the  afternoon. 

You  will  notice  that  the  verb,  ivalk,  forms  its 
past  indicative  and  perfect  participle  by  adding  ed 
to  the  present  indicative;  as,  walk,  walked,  walked. 

In  the  sentence.  We  heard  the  rain,  the  verb, 
heard,  forms  its  past  tense,  and  past  or  perfect  par- 
ticiple by  adding  d  to  the  present  indicative ;  as,  hear, 
heard,  heard. 

The  verb,  zvrite,  does  not  form  its  past  indica- 
tive and  past  or  perfect  participle  by  adding  either 
d  or  ed  to  the  present  indicative.  In  forming  the 
past  indicative^'-and  past  or  perfect  participle  of  this 
verb,  there  is  an  internal  change  in  the  word.  This 
difference  in  the  wav  in  which  verbs  form  their 


270  All  English  Grammar 

principal  parts  gives  rise  to  two  classes  of    .  irbs : 
regular  and  irregular. 

242.  Regular  Verb  Defined.  A  regular  verb 
is  a  verb  which  forms  its  past  indicative  and  past 
or  perfect  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  pres- 
ent indicative ;    as,  talk,  talked,  talked. 

243.  Irregular  Verb  Defined.  An  irregular 
verb  is  a  verb  which  does  not  form  its  past  indica- 
tive and  past  or  perfect  participle  by  adding  d  or 
ed  to  the  present  indicative;  as, ride,  rode,  ridden. 

244.  Irregular  Verbs  Difficult.  The  regular 
verbs  are  as  a  rule  easily  mastered ;  but  the  irregular 
verbs  must  be  carefully  studied.  You  will  need  to 
know  two  things  concerning  irregular  verbs: 

1.  You  must  know  their  principal  parts.  These 
nuist  be  thoroughly  learned  by  practicing  with 
right  forms.  There  is  no  way  of  reasoning  out  the 
forms  of  irregular  verbs;  there  is  no  principle 
which  will  guide  you  in  their  formation.  The  prin- 
cipal parts  of  irregular  verbs,  especially  those  in 
common  use,  must  simply  be  learned. 

2.  You  nnist  then  learn  to  use  the  principal 
parts  of  these  verbs  correctly.  It  is  one  thing  to 
know  that  the  princi]:)al  parts  of  the  verb,  cat,  are 
eat,  ate,  eaten,  and  quite  another  thing  to  know 
when  to  use  the  forni,  ate,  and  the  fomi,  eaten.  \N& 
may  say,  in  general,  that  we  use  t^Bform,  eat,  or 
the  present  indicative  of  the  verb  ^'^en  we  wish  to 
express  an  act  in  the  present  time;  we  use  the 


Verbs 


271 


form,  ate,  or  the  past  indicative  of  any  \Trb,  when 
we  wish  to  express  an  act  in  the  past  time;  and 
we  use  the  form,  eaten,  or  the  past  or  perfect  parti- 
ciple of  any  verb  with  an  auxih'ary  to  express  an 
act  occurring  in  a  period  of  time  beginning  in  the 
past  and  continuing  up  to  and  including  the  present 
time,  or  in  other  words,  when  we  use  it  with  such 
words  as  has,  have,  or  any  such  word  which  is  used 
with  the  past  or  perfect  participle  to  form  a  verb 
phrase.  This,  however,  is  only  a  general  principle 
which  will  in  part  guide  us  in  the  use  of  the  prin- 
cipal parts  of  verbs. 

Exercise  83 

The  follozuiiig  is  a  list  of  tJie  principal  parts  of 
the  most  important  irregular  verbs.  Use  these 
again  and  again  in  sentences  until  you  are  sure  you 
knozv  then. 


Present 

Past 

Past  or  Peri-ect  Par' 

begin 

began 

begun 

burst 

burst 

burst 

blow 

blev^ 

blown 

break 

broke 

broken 

come 

came 

come 

do 

did 

done 

drive 

drove 

driven 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

fly 

flew 

flown 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

forget 

forgot 

forgotten 

get 

got 

got  or  gotten 

give 

gave 

given 

OTO 


An  English  Grammar 


Present 

.    Past 

Past 

OR   Perfi£ct  Participle 

go 

went 

gone 

know 

kni'w 

known 

lay  (to 

place) 

laid 

laid 

lie  (to 

recline) 

lay 

lain 

prove 

proved 

proved 

fnot  proven) 

know 

knew 

known 

ride 

rode 

ridden 

rise 

rose 

risen 

run 

ran 

run 

see 

saw 

seen 

set  (to 

put,  or 

set 

set 

to 

place) 

sit   (to 

rest) 

sat 

sat 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

show 

showed 

shown, 

showed 

speak 

spoke' 

spoken 

slay 

slew 

slain 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

take 

took 

taken 

draw 

drew 

drawn 

wake 

waked, 

woke 

waked. 

woke 

Note:  Some  of  these  verbs  have  other  forms  in  the  past  or 
perfect  participle,  but  they  are  old  or  not  in  good  usage.  These 
are  the   forms  which  should  be  fixed. 


Exercise  84 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  parts  of 
irregular  verbs  not  in  quite  such  common  use  as 
those  in  the  preceding  list.  They  should,  however, 
be  thoroughly  mastered. 

In  some  cases  regular  verbs  have  been  put  into 
the  list  because  tJiey  have  old  irregular  forms  which 


Verbs 


273 


arc  not 

nozv  use 

^d,  or  because 

they  arc  sometimes 

confused 

'  zvifh  irregular  verbs. 

Present 

Past        Past  ( 

3R  Perfect  Participle 

abjde 

abode 

abode 

awake 

awoke 

awaked  •  'S:^/-»'t«- 

bear  (bring  forth) 

bore 

born 

bear  (can 

-y) 

bore 

borne 

Jjeat  ^ 

beat 

beaten 

--^nd 

bent 

bent 

bereave 

bereft 

bereft,  bereaved 

beseech 

besought 

besought 

bet 

bet 

bet 

bid  (comuiand) 

bade 

bidden 

bid  (offer  money) 

bid 

bid 

bind 

bound 

bound 

bite 

bit 

bitten 

bleed 

bled 

bled 

bjend 

blended 

blended,  blent 

BreeTt 

bred 

bred 

bring 

brought 

brought 

build^ 

built 

built.  IwtWecT 

buy" 

bought 

bought 

rc\T\ 

could 
cast 

cast 

cast 

catch 

caught 

caught 

chide 

chid 

chidden 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

cleave  (to 

adhere) 

cleaved 

cleaved 

cleave  (to 

split) 

clove,  cleft 

cleft,  cloven 

cling 

clung 

clung 

clothe 

clothed,  clad 

clothed,  clad 

-e-e^r-  ^ 

cost 

cost 

cost 

creep 

crept 

crept 

crow 

crowed,  crew 

crowed 

cut 

cut 

cut 

274 


An  English  Grammar 


Present 


Past         Past  ok  Perfect  Participle 


d.--^ 


^.-^ream 

dared,  durst 
dug,  digged 
dreamed,  dreamt 

dared 

dug,  digged 

dreamed,  dreamt 

drink 
"dweir 

drank 
dwelt 

drunk 
dwelt 

dress 

dressed,  drest 

dressed,  drest 

,4raw 

drew 

.    drawn 

^all 

fell 

fallen 

feed 

fed 

fed 

feel 

felt 

felt 

fight 
find 

fought 
found 

fought 
found 

fiee 

fled  . 

fled 

fling 

flung 
flew 

flung 
flown 

/^  forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

^      freight 

freighted 

freighted,  fraught 

yforbear 

.-■^get' 

forbore 

forborne 

got 

gjidedrgilt 
-g4ftlTed,  "gill 

got 

gtWedr-^ 

gipdedy-gtrt 

^grind 

gave 
ground 

given 
ground 

grow 

grew 

grown 

hang  (to  suspend) 
hang  (to  execute) 
;  have 
lieave 

hung 

hanged 

had 

hung 

hanged 

had 

liove,  heaved 

hove,  heaved 

^ide 

hid 

hidden 

^  hold 

held 

held 

Tiit 

hit 

hit 

liurt 

hurt 

hurt 

keep 

kept 

kept 

Verbs 


275 


Present 
kneel 


^. 


knit 


-fifi 


lade 


^ight 


Past         Past  or  Perfect  Participle 

knelt,  kneeled 
knitted,  knit 
laden 
lighted,   lit 


knelt,  kneeled 
knitted,  knit 
laded 
lighted, 


lit 


/>rplose 
1     ^\make 

lost 

lost 

made 

made 

may 

might 

mean 

meant 

meant 

meet 

met 

met 

mot'' 

.ft41-oll1- 

pay 

paid 

paid 

^'  JD lit 

put 

])Ut 

quit 

quitted. 

quit 

quitted,  quit 

read 

read 

read 

-Feave 

r-eft.  reaved 

ueft.  reaved  • 

jr^fTtr 

F€«^ed. 

rerrt 

i-"endetl.  rerrt- 

;.      ri^ 

rid 

rid 

^^^^ive 

rived 

riven,  rived 

say 

said 

said 

seek 

sought 

sought 

^sefjite  (intransitive  1  <?eethed 

seethed 

/        

seethed, 

sod 

seethed,  sodden 

sell 

sold 

sold 

shed 

shed 

shed 

shoe 

shod 

shod 

shme 

shone 

shone 

shred 

shredded,  shred 

shredded,  shred 

shrink 

shrank 

shrunk 

shrive 

shrove 

shriven 

slay 

shot 
slew 

shot 
slain 

sing 

sang 

sung 

270 


An  English  Graiinnar 


PuiiSENT 

-    sink 

'  '  sleep 

smell 

slide 

sling 

smite 
se\v 

"^spfe^d 
speed 
spell 
spend 
spill 
spin 
spjt 
•   split 

n     'spring* 

stand 

/>(> '  r 

stay 
swear 
s^ick 
sting 
strow 
stride 
strike 
string 
,striye 
'^  sweat, 
swell 
swing 
^  swim 
te' tear 


^> 


Past 

Past 

OR  Perfect  Participle 

sank 

sunk 

slept 

slept 

smelt 

smelt 

slid 

slid,  slidden 

slung 

slung 

slunk 

slunk 

smote 

'  smitten 

sewed 

sewed 

spread 

spread 

sped 

sped 

spelled, 

spelt 

spelled,  spelt 

spent 

spent 

spilled. 

spilt 

spilled,  spilt 

spun 

spun 

spit 

spit 

split 

split 

spoiled, 

spoilt 

spoiled,  spoilt 

sprang 

sprung 

stood 

stood 

staved, 

stove 

staved,  stove 

stayed, 

staid 

stayed,  staid 

swore 

swore 

stuck 

stuck 

stung 

stung 

strew 

strewn 

strode 

stridden 

struck 

struck,  stricken 

strung 

strung 

strove 

striven 

sweat 

sweat 

swelled 

swelled,  swollen 

swung 

swung 

swam 

swum 

tore 

torn 

Verbs 


277 


A^  Present 

Past 

Past  or  Perfect  Participle 

'Veil 

told 

told 

\teach 

taught 

taught 

think 

thought 

thought 

tj^mr 

tl«=e>Ye 

thrived,  throve; 

thrust 

thrust 

thrust          [thriven 

thread 

tlireaded 

threaded 

tread 

trod 

trodden 

wiBeed^ 

wax€d7-"vvan^5rT 

wear 

wore 

worn 

wea|ve 

wove 

woven 

weep 

wept 

wept 

wend 

wended 

wended 

wet 

wet 

wet 

will 

would 

win 

won 

won 

wind 

wound 

wound 

wcine: 

wrung 

wrung 

Note:  ^^any  verbs  which  used  to  fonn  their  principal  parts  ir- 
regularl}'  have  now  regular  forms  and  the  tendency  in  modern 
English  is  to  use  the  regular  forms  of  irregular  verbs  rather  than 
the  old   irregular   forms ;   as, 

proved  is  better  than  proven 
knitted  is  bettor  than  knit 
heaved  is  belter  than   hoz>e 
dived  is  better  than  dove 

245.  Devices  for  Fixing  the  Use  of  the  Princi- 
pal Parts  of  Irregular  Verbs.  All  the  devices  pos- 
sible should  be  utilized  for  fixing  the  uses  of  the 
principal  parts  of  irregular  verbs.  The  following 
exercises  \\\\\  illustrate  some  of  the  devices  that 
may  be  employed : 

Exercise  85 

Be  able  to  fill  the  follozuing  blanks  zvith  any  ap- 


^^^  An  English  Grammar 

propriate  verb  from  the  preceding  list;  omit  the 
zvord,  it,  from  the  formula  when  substituting  an 
intransitive  verb: 

1.  I it  now. 

2.  I  it  a  week  ago. 

3.  I  have  it  lately. 

4-  He  it  now. 

5-  He a  week  ago. 

6.  He  has  it  lately. 

7.  They  may  today. 

8.  They  yesterday. 

9.  They  had before  \ou  came. 

Exercise  86 

Fdl  the  following  blanks  zuith  the  proper  forms 
of  speak  and  write: 

1.  She  very  well 

2.  You  have  too  soon. 

3.  I  should  have  sooner. 

4-  Have  they  to  you? 

5.  Has  James to  you  about  it  ? 

6.  Who  said  you  had about  it? 

Exercise  87 

Fdl  the  follozving  blanks  with  the  proper  forms 
of  do: 

I-  I  as  I  was  told. 

2.  My  work  is  . 

3.  Who  the  mischief? 

4.  The  boy  has his  work  well. 

5.  Who  said  I  that? 

6.  Sarah   it   iiersclf. 

7.  Mary  her  example. 


Verbs  279 

Exercise  88 

Insert  ill  these  blanks  the  proper  forms  of  the 
verb,  choose: 

1.  I  the  blue  pencil. 

2.  Americans freedom  of  thought. 

3.  I  to  go  ashore. 

4.  Henry  was first. 

5.  My  sister  herself  the  goods. 

6.  He  should  have  been  . 

7.  Will  you  first? 

Exercise  89 

Fill  these  blanks  with  the  proper  forms  of  the 
verbs,  raise  and  rise: 

1.  He  from  the  chair. 

2.  I  have  as  early  as  five. 

3.  He  that  would  thrive  must by  five. 

4.  Have  you  the  window? 

5.  Have  you  from  your  chair? 

6.  What  makes  the  bread  ? 

7.  Yeast  the  bread. 

8.  The  sun at  six. 

9.  The  river  has  a  great  deal. 

10.  I  saw  the  sun  this  morning. 

11.  I  cannot  this  window. 

12.  The  sun  at  five  this  morning. 

13.  The  sun  has  . 

14.  I  wish  you  would from  the  floor. 

Exercise  90 

/;/  the  foUozving  sentences,  fill  the  blanks  with 


^^^^  An  English  Grammar 

the  proper  forms  of  the  verbs,    lie,  lay,  sit,  teach, 
learn,  seem,  appear,  love,  like: 

1.  The  boy up  straight. 

2.  I  have  up  long-  enough. 

3-  the  lamp  on  the  table  and bv  me. 

4.  James  for  his  picture  to-day. 

5.  I  can  my   lesson. 

6.  Will  you  T- — —  me  to  write?  ' 

7.  How  long  will  it  take  you  to me? 

8.  I  cannot my  lesson. 

9.  Will  you me  to  skate  ? 

10.  Do  not  ask  me  to  you. 

11.  You  will  not me  to  swim. 

12.  He  down  to  rest. 

13.  He the  book  down. 

14.  He  had  down  to  rest. 

15.  He  had  the  book  down. 

16.  I  will down  to  rest. 

17.  I  will  my  pen  down. 

18.  A  man  is  on  the  porch. 

19.  James  is  out  tomato  plants. 

20.  The  sun  is  just  . 

21.  I  am  still. 

22.  She  is  near  the  window. 

2T,.  The  sun  looks  red. 

24.  Belle  is under  a  tree  in  the  yard. 

25.  She  is to  be  satisfied. 

26.  The  dress to  be  new. 

27.  The  day  fine. 

28.  Did  she  to  be  contented? 

29.  It to  be  red. 

30.  How  did  he to  be? 

31.  The  man to  be  well  pleased. 

2)2.  I  hope  you  will  well. 


Verbs  2!S1 

33.  I  can  well  if  I  wish  to. 

34.  The  storm  to  be  passing  over. 

35.  The  sun  between   the  clouds. 

36.  I  my  brother. 

37.  The  boy  his  sister. 

38.  Do  you  oranges? 

39.  The  child its  parents. 

40.  I  his  appearance  very  much. 

41.  Do  you  amusements? 

42.  They  Nat  Goodwin. 

Exercise  91 

Other  devices  requiring  the  pupils  to  use  the 
different  forms  of  irregular  verbs  in  sentences 
should  be  inz'Cnted ;  as,  The  teacher  rising  from  her 
chair,  may  say: 

"What  do  I  do,  Kate? 
Kate:     "You  rise  from  your  chair." 
Teacher:     "What  did  I  do,  Tom?" 
Tom:     "You  rose  from  your  chair." 
Teacher:     "What  have  I  done,  Ned?" 
Ned:     "You  have  risen  from  your  chair." 

The  teacher  then  breaks  a  piece  of  chalk,  or 
zvrites  on  the  board,  or  cJwoscs  a  book,  or  speaks 
loudly,  and  asks  the  same  questions.  The  exercise 
may  be  continued  at  zvill. 

*246.  Classes  of  Verbs  on  Basis  of  Peculiari- 
ties. \A\^  have  now  cla.ssificd  verbs  on  the  basis 
of  the  kind  of  idea  expressed  by  them  and  on  the  ba- 
sis of  how  they  form  iheir  past  indicative  and  past 


*  NoTK :      F'npils  ncfd   not   dwell   npi>ii   Section  .z^C). 


282  An  English  Grammar 

or  perfect  participle.  We  are  now  to  see  that  there 
are  certain  other  classes  of  verbs  on  the  basis  of 
peculiar  attributes.  These  are  not  really  logical 
divisions  because  the  classes  into  which  we  divide 
the  verbs  do  not  include  all  verbs.  The  division 
into  these  classes,  however,  helps  to  emphasize  cer- 
tain essential  attributes  of  these  verbs. 

Examine  the  verbs  in  the  follozving  sentences. 
Classify  these  verbs  on  the  bases  previously  worked 
out  and  then  notice  hozv  they  differ  from  the  classes 
of  verbs  on  these  bases: 

1.  It  rains. 

2.  Let  US  live  tlie  life  of  the  righteous. 

3.  He  dreams  of  me. 

4.  One  ought  to  do  his  best. 

5.  The  child  hurt  himself. 

6.  The  fairies  made  the  poor  hut  a  palace. 

7.  I  can  follow  the  reasoning. 

a.  In  the  first  sentence,  the  verb,  rains,  has  the 
word,  it,  for  its  subject.  If  we  are  asked  what  the 
word,  it,  means  in  this  sentence,  it  is  difficult  to  tell. 
We  may  mean  the  cloud  rains  or  nature  rains,  it  is 
indefinite.  A  verb  which  has  a  subject  like  this  is 
called  an  impersonal  or  unipersonal  verb. 

b.  In  the  second  sentence,  the  verb,  live,  takes  the 
direct  objective  modifier,  the  life  of  the  righteous. 
The  principal  word  of  this  direct  objective  modifier, 
life  expresses  an  abstract  object  of  thought  which 
is  formed  from  the  attribute  expressed  by  the  verb. 
live.     Such  a  verb  is  called  a  cognate  verb,  and  the 


Verbs  283 

expression,  the  life  of  the  righteous,  in  this  sen- 
tence may  be  called  a  cognate  direct  objective 
modifier. 

c.  In  the  third  sentence  the  verb,  dreams,  has 
more  than  one  form  for  its  past  indicative  and  past 
or  perfect  participle.  The  principal  parts  are: 
dreaui,  dreamed  or  dreamt,  dreamed  or  dreamt.  We 
call  such  a  verb  a  redundant  verb. 

d.  In  the  fourth  sentence,  the  verb,  ought,  has 
only  one  of  the  princi])al  parts ;  namely,  the  present 
indicative.  The  past  indicative  and  the  past  or  per- 
fect participle  are  wanting.  A\'e  call  such  a  verb  a 
defective  verb. 

e.  In  the  fifth  sentence,  the  verb,  hurt,  takes  a 
direct  objective  modifier,  the  expression,  himself, 
which  expresses  the  same  object  of  thought  as  the 
subject  of  the  verb.  Such  a  verb  is  called  a  re- 
flexive verb. 

f.  In  the  sixth  sentence,  the  verb,  made,  is  modi- 
fied by  a  direct  objective  modifier,  the  poor  hut  a 
palace.  The  principal  word  in  the  direct  objective 
modifier,  hiit,  is  modified  by  the  expression,  a  pal- 
ace, an  appositive  modifier,  and  this  expression  at 
ihe  same  time  supplements  the  meaning  of  the  verb, 
made.  This  kind  of  verb  we  call  a  factitive  or 
causative  verb.  The  direct  objective  modifier  in 
such  cases  ma\'  be  called  a  factitive  direct  ob- 
jective modifier. 

0-.  In  the  seventh  sentence,  the  verb,  can,  does 
not  express  the  thought  relation  in  itself.     It  sim- 


284  An  English  Gramma? 

l)ly  helps  the  verb,  follozv,  to  express  the  thought 
relation.  A  verb  which  does  this  we  call  an  aux- 
iliary verb. 

247.  Impersonal  or  Unipersonal  Verb  De- 
fined. An  impersonal  or  unipersonal  verb  is  a 
verb  v^hich  has  for  its  subject  the  pronoun,  itt 
when  it  expresses  no  definite  object  of  thought, 
but  only  helps  to  show  that  some  action  or  proc- 
ess is  going  on;  as,  It  lightened  as  it  seemed  to  me. 

248.  Cognate  Verb  Defined.  A  cognate  verb 
is  a  verb  which  takes  a  direct  objective  modifier, 
the  abstract  object  of  thought  expressed  by  which 
is  formed  from  the  attribute  expressed  by  the 
verb;  as,  He  prayed  a  prayer  for  deliverance. 

249.  Redundant  Verb  Defined.  A  redundant 
verb  is  a  verb  which  has  more  than  one  form  for 
some  one  or  more  of  its  principal  parts;  as,  This 
boy  forsook  his  mother. 

250.  Defective  Verb  Defined.  A  defective 
verb  is  a  verb  which  is  wanting  in  some  one  or 
more  of  its  principal  parts;  as,  So  mote  it  he. 
Many  of  the  auxiliary  verbs  are  defective. 

251.  Reflexive  Verb  Defined.  A  reflexive  verb 
is  a  verb  which  takes  a  direct  objective  modifier, 
the  object  of  thought  expressed  by  which  is  iden- 
tical with  the  thought  subject;   as,  /  hurt  myself. 

252.  Factitive  or  Causative  Verb  Defined.  A 
factitive  or  causative  verb  is  a  verb  the  meaning 
of  which  is  supplemented  by  some  expression  in 


Verbs  285 

its  direct  objective  modifier;  as.    They   made    tlic 
zvalk  lei'cl. 

The  word,  level,  in  the  direct  objective  modifier 
supplements  the  meaning-  of  the  verb,  made. 

253.  Auxiliary  Verb  Defined.  An  auxiliary 
verb  is  a  verb  which  helps  another  verb  to  ex- 
press a  thought  relation;  as.  /  will  assist  you. 

Exercise  92 

In  the  foUowiii<i  sentences  point  nut  the  verbs 
and  classify  them  on  the  basis  of 

1.  Kind  of  idea  expressed. 

2.  Hoiv  they  form  their  past  indicati-c'c  and  past 
or  perfect  participle. 

?.  Find  one  example  of  each  kind  of  verb  on  the 
basis  of  their  peculiarity. 

1.  "It    snows!"    cries   the   schoolbo}-. 

2.  It  rains  the  livelong  cla\',  and  mournful  is  the  house. 

3.  They  die  the  death  of  the  righteous. 

4.  I  have  fought  a  good  fight ;  I  have  finished  the 
faith.  . 

5.  He  blew  a  blast  ujjon  tlic  winding  horn. 

6.  I  will  run  as  far  as  God  has  any  ground. 

7.  You  call  me  unbeliever,  cut-throat,  dog. 
And  spit  upon  my  Jewish  gaberdine. 

And  all  for  use  of  that  which  is  mine  own. 

— Shalzespearc. 

8.  I  will  buy  with  you,  sell  with  }Ou,  talk  with  you, 
walk  with  you,  and  so  following,  but  I  will  not  eat  with  you. 
drink  with  you,  nor  pray  with  you. — Shatzespcarc. 

9.  If  T  forget  thee,  O  Jerusalem,  let  m\-  right  hanrl 
forget  her  cunning. 


2S6  An  English  Grammar 

10.  I  will  never  leave  thee,  nor  forsake  thee. 

11.  I  may  nc\cr  see  you  again. 

12.  I  may  neither  choose  whom  1  would  nor  refuse 
whom  I  dislike. — Shakespeare. 

13.  Is  it  not  hard,  Nerissa,  that  I  cannot  choose  one 
nor  refuse  none? — Shakespeare. 

14.  "  By  my  troth,"  quoth  he,  "  you're  a  bold  man." 

15.  It  must  not  be. 

16.  One  ought  to  love  his  neighbor  as  himself. 

17.  Every  one   ow'es   himself  an   education. 

18.  He  forces  himself  to  be  generous. 

19.  The  cargo  made  the  boat  sink. 

20.  The  traveler  walked   himself   weary. 

21.  The  singer  sang  her  throat  hoarse. 

22.  The  lightning  struck  him  dead. 

23.  He  has  told  the  story  many  times. 

24.  This  above  all :  to  thine  own  self  be  true, 
And  it  must  follow,  as  the  night  the  day. 
Thou  canst  not  then  be  false  to  any  man. 

— Shakespeare. 

25.  Child,  thou  wilt  not  leave  thy  mother  so? 

26.  Thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness  against  thy 
neighbor. 

27.  We  do  reject  the  offer. 

28.  What  should  such  fellows  as  1  do  crawling  be'tween 
earth  and  heaven  ? — Shakespeare. 

29.  He  does  confess  he  feels  himself  distracted ; 

But  from  what  cause,  he  will  by  no  means  speak. 

— Shakespeare. 
Exercise  93 

The  words,  may  and  can,  are  often  confused. 
The  word,  may,  expresses  permission  or  possibiHty. 
The  word,  can,  expresses  power  or  abiHty.  He  may 
take  my  book,  means  I  give  him  permission  to  take 


Verbs  287 

my  book.     He  can  fake  my  book,  means  he  has  the 
power  or  authority  or  abiHty  to  take  my  book. 

Fill  the  follozving  blanks  with  the  auxiliaries, 
may  or  can : 

1 .  I  ask  a   question  ? 

2.  I  start  yet  to-night. 

3.  Please,  I  take  your  book? 

4.  The  boy —  do  better  work. 

-    5.  How  far  you  ride? 

6.  The  eagle carry  off  a  child. 

7.  you  see  where  you   are  going? 

8.  You  take  a  walk. 

9.  '■ —  stars  be  suns? 

10.  How  you  bear  to  leave? 

11.  How  we  know  them? 

1 2.  Where  w  c  meet  you  ? 

13.  The  child  walk. 

14.  The  pu])il  solve  the  ])roblem. 

15.  You —  draw  pictures. 

16.  Where  the  good  he  olitained? 

254.  Uses  of  Shall  and  Will.  Tlic  auxiliaries, 
shall  and  zvill,  arc  also  often  used  incorrectly.  We 
may  say,  in  p^eneral,  that  we  use  the  auxiliary,  shall, 
with  the  (irst  person  and  zvill  with  the  second  and 
third  persons  to  denote  simple  futurity;  as.  /  shall 
be  there.  Yon  zvill  be  there.  He  zvill  be  there.  We 
use  the  auxiliary,  zvill,  with  the  first  ])erson  and  the 
auxiliary,  shall,  with  the  second  and  third  persons, 
to  denote  futurity  accompanied  by  determination  on 
the  part  of  the  speaker;  as,  /  zvill  go,  You  shall  go, 
He  shall  go. 


^■'^S  An  English  Grammar 

It  pupils  will  hold  in  mind  lliis  one  ]:)rinciple 
with  regard  to  shall  and  zuill,,  most  of  the  errors 
in  the  use  of  these  words  in  principal  clauses  may  be 
avoided. 

Exercise  94 

Fill  the  followini^  blanks  ivifhtJie  proper  forms 
of  shall  or  will : 

1.  He speak  in  the  evening. 

2.  you  go  with  us? 

3.  You  have  your  own  way. 

4.  We  go  in  spite  of  you. 

5.  We vote  early. 

7.  They go,  if  they  can. 

8.  She  not  be  allowed   to  go  home  alone. 

9.  You  have  gone  before  we  arrive. 

10.  We be  avenged. 

11.  If  you  see  him,  you  find  him  busy. 

12.  you  dine  with  us  to-morrow? 

13.  I read  awhile. 

14.  I  see  him? 

15.  I  read  to  you? 

16.  You  have  your  money  to-morrow. 

17.  He  be  punished  for  it. 

18.  I  be  happy  to  accept. 

19.  I  die  ere  I  obey  him. 

255,  Mode.  Tn  the  following  sentences  notice 
the  relation  between  the  thought  expressed  by  the 
sentence  and  the  fact  or  real  relation  in  the  external 
world,  that  is,  notice : 

I.  Whether  the  thought  expressed  by  the  sen- 


Verbs  289 

tence  corresponds  to  a  reality  or  fact  in  the  external 
world ; 

2.  Whether  there  is  some  doubt  in  the  mind  con- 
cerning- whether  it  corresponds  to  a  fact  or  reality 
or  not; 

3.  AMiether  the  thought  is  a  mere  supposition 
and  there  is  no  fact  or  reality  in  the  external  world 
corresponding-  to  it ; 

4.  Finally,  whether  the  thought  in  the  mind  cor- 
responds to  the  fact  or  reality  in  the  external  world 
on  account  of  necessity  in  external  circumstances  or 
will  outside  of  that  of  the  actor : 

1.  We  visited  the  exposition. 

2.  If  the  bird  finds  the  crumbs,  it  will  eat  them. 

3.  If  my  father  were  here,  it  would  be  different. 

4.  Bring  me  the  book. 

5.  You  must  study  your  lesson. 

6.  The  answer  must  be  wrong. 

In  the  first  sentence,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  re- 
lation expressed  by  the  verb,  visited,  corresponds  to 
an  actual  relation  in  the  external  world  or  the 
thought  expressed  by  the  sentence  corresponds  to  a 
fact  in  the  external  world.  This  relation  between 
the  thought  expressed  by  the  sentence  and  the  fact 
in  the  .external  world  gives  rise  to  that  property  of 
the  verb  which  we  call  mode. 

The  mind  is  not  sure  whether  the  thought  ex- 
pressed by  the  clause,  //  the  bird  finds  the  crumbs, 
in  the  second  sentence,  corresponds  to  a  fact  in  the 
external  world  or  not.  The  bird  mav  find  the  crumbs 


290  An  English  Grammar 

or  it  may  not  find  the  crumbs  and  the  mind  is  in 
doubt  as  to  which  relation  will  exist.  The  relation 
between  the  thought  expressed  by  the  clause,  //  my 
father  iverc  here,  and  the  fact  in  the  external  world 
is  not  in  doubt.  The  thought  expressed  by  this 
clause  does  not  correspond  to  a  fact  in  the  external 
world  and  the  mind  knows  it.  We  may  say  that  the 
thought  is  a  mere  supposition  and  there  is  no  fact 
in  the  external  world  corresponding  to  it.  It  is  the 
same  as  if  we  said,  Suppose  my  father  zvere  here,  or 
Let  us  imagine  that  my  father  is  here. 

The  thought  expressed  by  the  fourth  sentence, 
Bring  me  the  book,  corresponds  to  a  fact  in  the  ex- 
ternal world  on  account  of  will  power  outside  of 
the  actor.  When  one  person  says  to  another,  Bring 
me  the  book,  he  means  that  his  will  is  to  be  exerted 
upon  the  other  to  have  that  act  performed.  The 
same  is  true  in  the  fifth  sentence,  You  must  study. 
The  person  who  uses  this  sentence  means  that  his 
will  is  to  be  exerted  upon  the  person  addressed  in 
order  to  have  this  act  performed.  The  sentence, 
The  anszver  must  be  wrong,  is  slightly  dififerent 
from  the  last  two.  We  mean  when  we  use  this  ex- 
pression that  conditions  or  external  circumstances 
are  such  that  the  answer  could  not  possibly  be  any- 
thing but  wrong.  It  is  wrong  on  account  of  neces- 
sity in  external  circumstances. 

256.  Mode  Defined.  Mode  is  that  property 
of  the  verb  which  shows  the  relation  between  the 


Verbs  291 

thought  expressed  by  the  sentence  or  clause  and 
the  fact  in  the  external  world. 

257.  The  Three  Modes.  In  Section  261.  we 
have  seen  that  four  relations  may  exist  between 
the  thoutrht  expressed  by  tlie  sentence  and  the  fact 
or  reality  in  the  external  world: 

1.  The  thoiio-ht  expressed  by  the  sentence  may 
correspond  to  a  reality  or  fact  in  the  external  world 
and  the  mind  may  know  it :  as  Franklin  was  a  phil- 
osopJwr. 

2.  The  tbought  expressed  by  the  sentence  may 
or  may  not  correspond  to  a  reahty  or  fact  in  the 
external  world  and  the  mind  may  be  in  doubt  about 
it;  that  is.  tbere  is  a  doubtful  mind  concerning  an 
actual  relation;  as,  //  it  be  raining,  I  must  remain. 

3.  Tbe  thought  expressed  by  the  sentence  may 
be  merely  a  supposition  and  there  may  be  no  reality 
or  fact  in  the  external  world  corresponding  to  it 
and  the  mind  may  know  it;  as.  If  wc  were  wealthy, 
zve  could  enjoy  many  pleasures. 

4.  The  thought  expressed  by  the  sentence  may 
correspond  to  a  fact  or  reality  in  the  external  world 
on  account  of  will  power  outside  of  that  of  the  actor 
or  necessity  in  external  circumstances;  as,  Sing  nie 
a  merry  lay,  m\  lads.  Tht  demonstration  must  be 
true. 

The  first  relation  indicated  here  is  expressed 
!)}•  the  indicative;  the  second  and  third,  by  the 
subjunctive;  the  fourth  by  the  imperative. 


202  An  English  Grammar 


t,' 


258.  Indicative  Mode  Defined.  The  indica- 
tive mode  is  that  mode  which  shows  that  the 
thought  expressed  by  the  sentence  or  clause  cor- 
responds to  a  fact  or  reality  in  the  external  world ; 

as.  iVapoIcoii  was  defeated  at  Waterloo. 

259.  Subjunctive  Mode  Defined.  The  sub- 
junctive mode  is  that  mode  which  shows  that 
there  is  some  doubt  in  the  mind  as  to  whether  the 
thought  expressed  by  the  sentence  or  clause  cor- 
responds to  a  reality  or  fact  in  the  external  world, 
or  it  shows  that  the  thought  expressed  by  the  sen- 
tence or  clause  is  only  a  supposition  and  there  is 
no  fact  in  the  external  world  to  correspond  to  it ; 
as,  //  my  brother  be  present,  I  can  not  find  him.  If 
my  brother  were  present,  he  zvould  come  to  me. 

260.  Imperative  Mode  Defined.  Imperative 
mode  is  that  mode  which  shows  that  the  thought 
expressed  by  the  sentence  or  clause  corresponds 
to  a  reality  or  fact  in  the  external  world  on  ac- 
count of  necessity  in  external  circumstances  or 
will  power  outside  of  that  of  the  actor;  as,  Close 
the  door.     The  end  must  have  come. 

261.  Potential  Mode.  Some  grammarians 
give  four  modes;  namely,  indicative,  subjunctive, 
potential,  and  imperative.  There  is  no  serious 
ol)jection  to  this  division,  but  it  does  not  seem  to  be 
necessary,  as  all  relations  between  thoughts  and  real 
relations  in  the  external  world  may  be  classified  un- 
der the  indicative,  subjunctive  and  imperative.    The 


Verbs  2 'J  3 

forms  often  called  potential  mode  may  be  classed 
easily  under  the  other  three. 

262.  Uses  of  Indicative  Mode.  The  indicative 
mode  is  b}-  far  the  most  common  form  of  the  verb 
because  it  expresses  a  fact,  or  what  the- mind 
thinks  to  be  a  fact.  It  is  also  used  in  asking  ques- 
tions of  fact.  We  must  not  get  the  idea  that  every 
sentence  which  expresses  a  dotibt  or  thought  con- 
trary to  the  fact  is  in  the  subjunctive  mode.  These 
ideas  are  often  expressed  by  other  words  than  the 
verb  in  the  sentence.  If  we  have  the  subjtinctive 
mode  the  verb  itself  must  express  this  idea  of  doubt 
or  uncertainty.  In  the  sentence,  Perhaps  I  shall  go, 
the  mind  is  not  sure  of  the  thought,  but  the  doubt  is 
expressed  by  the  word,  perhaps,  and  not  by  the 
verb.  In  the  sentence,  My  brother  is  not  at  home, 
we  have  the  idea  of  negation  expressed,  but  it  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  word,  not,  and  not  the  verb. 

263.  Remains  of  Subjunctive  Mode. 

We  have  almost  lost  the  subjunctive  mode  from  the  Eng- 
lish language.  John  Earle,  in  his  "  English  Prose,  Its 
Elements,  History,  and  Usage,"  says.  "  Some  people  seem 
to  think  that  the  subjunctive  mode  is  as  good  as  lost,  that 
it  is  doomed  and  that  its  retention  is  hopeless.  *  *  *  If 
we  lose  the  subjunctive  verb,  it  will  certainly  be  a  grievous 
impoverishment  to  our  literary  language,  were  it  only  for  its 
value  in  giving  variation  to  diction — and  T  make  bold  to 
assert  that  the  writer  who  helps  to  keep  it  up  deserves  public 
gratitude." 

However  much  we  may  regret  the  loss  of  the  subjunctive 
and  however  much  we  may  wish  to  help  to  perpetuate  its 


:^i*-i  An  English  Grammar 

use,  the  fact  remains  that  it  is  gradually  passing  out  of  gen- 
eral use.  Scarcely  any  modern  English  writer  takes  the 
pains  to  say,  //  //  rain,  and  //  he  come.  Nearly  every  one 
uses  the  indicative  forms,  //'  it  rains,  and  //"  he  comes,  to 
express  the  subjunctive  meaning. 

It  is  perfectly  natural  that  the  subjunctive  mode  should 
pass  from  the  English  language  because  there  are  so  few 
strictly  subjunctive  forms  in  the  English  language.  The 
verb,  be,  has  the.  most  subjunctive  forms.  The  following 
table  will  illustrate  the  difference  between  the  indicative  and 
subjunctive  forms  of  the  verb,  be: 


Present 

Past 

Ind. 

Sub. 

Ind. 

Sub. 

I  am 

If  I  be 

1  was 

If  I  were 

Thou  art 

If  thou  be 

Thou  wast 

If  thou  wert 

He  is 

If  he  be 

He  was 

If  he  were 

We  are 

If  we  be 

We  were 

If  we  were 

You  are 

If  you  be 

You  were 

If  you  were 

They  are 

If  they  be 

They  were 

If  they  were 

Here  are  nine  forms  of  the  subjunctive  which  differ  from 
the  indicative.  All  the  other  forms  of  the  verb,  be,  are  the 
same  in  the  indicative  and  the  subjunctive.  This  is  the  sum 
and  substance  of  the  subjunctive  mode  forms  in  the  English 
language.  This  much  of  it  should  certainly  be  preserved,  but 
it  is  useless  to  try  to  keep  up  the  distinction  with  attributive 
verbs  because  there  are  only  two  separate  subjunctive  forms 
among  attributive  verbs.  The  second  and  third  person  sin- 
gular have  no  personal  endings  in  the  subjunctive,  as  the 
followino-  table  will  show  : 


Present 

Past 

Ind. 

Sub. 

Ind.                       Sub. 

I  write 

If  I   write 

I  wrote                  If  I  wrote 

Thou  writest 

If  thou  icrite 

Thou  wrotest       If  thou  wrote 

He  writes 

If  he  zvrite 

He  wrote              If  he  wrote 

Sometimes  the  subjunctive  meaning  is  expressed  by 
means  of  auxiliaries  forming  with  the  principal  part  of  the 
verl:)  a  verb  nhrase ;  as. 


Verbs  295 

r.  Help  me  so  to  live  that  I  may  honor  thee. 

2.  I    wish   that   you   may  prosper. 

3.  I   was  afraid  lest  he   might  fall. 

4.  It   would  be  better  if  he  should  come  now. 

We  must  not  get  the  idea,  however,  that  every  verb 
phrase  which  contains  the  word,  )}iay,  would,  should,  and  so 
on,  is  subjunctive  mode.  These  same  auxiUaries  may  be 
used  in  verb  phrases  when  the  thought  expressed  by  the 
sentence  corresponds  to  a  fact  or  reahty  in  the  external 
world ;   as, 

T.  I  may  take  his  book. 

2.  You  should   have  your  lesson. 

3.  The  boy  zvould  not  obey  the  teacher. 

264.  Uses  of  Subjunctive  Mode.  The  sub- 
junctive mode  is  almost  the  opposite  of  the  in- 
dicative. The  indicative  is  the  fact  mode;  it  ex- 
presses what  is.  The  subjunctive  is  the  mode  of 
uncertainty  or  doubt  in  the  speaker's  mind.  The 
most  common  ideas  expressed  by  the  verb  in  the 
subjunctive  mode  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 

1.  Supposition  contrary  to  the  fact  or  which  the 
mind  knows  to  be  untrue  or  unlikely ;  as,  //  you  were 
ill  his  place,  you  would  not  disappoint  us. 

2.  A  conclusion  which  is  based  upon  one  of  these 
suppositions  contrary  to  the  fact;  as,  //  my  mother 
had  known  about  the  affair,  .s7/(7  would  have  been 
uneasy. 

3.  The  idea  of  possibiHty;  as,  /  hoped  that  he 
might  reach  the  city  in  time. 

4.  The  idea  of  purpose ;  as,  Help  inc  to  knoiv  thy 
way  that  I  may  walk  in  the  light. 

5.  A  wish;  as,  Oh  that  my  fatJicr  were  here! 


296  An  English  Grammar 

6.  Prayer  or  supplication;  as,  May  tJiy  will  be 
done  oil  earth  as  it  is  in  heaven. 

Note:  The  subjunctive  mode  has  other  uses  in  subordinate 
clauses,  especially  conditional  clauses,  but  it  is  thought  best  not  to 
go  into  detail  with  children  in  the  grades. 


265.  Suggestions   on  the   Imperative   Mode. 

The  imperative  mode  expresses  commands,  entreat- 
ies, or  admonitions  addressed  to  the  person  spoken 
to.  It  is  therefore  used  only  in  the  second  person 
and  the  root  form  of  the  verb  is  used  in  both  singu- 
lar and  plural  number ;  as,  Be  industrious.  Have  no 
fear. 

It  may  be  distinguished  from  the  present  indica- 
tive, as  a  rule,  by  the  fact  that  the  subject  is  usually 
omitted;  as,  Bring  me  the  hook. 

Wishes  concerning  persons  or  things  spoken  of 
are  in  the  subjunctive  mode;  as.  Long  live  the  King. 
May  he  have  a  safe  voyage. 

These  are  not  commands  or  entreaties  addressed 
to  the  person  spoken  to  and  must  not  be  confused 
with  imperative  forms. 

The  verb,  let,  is  usually  in  the  imperative  mode ; 
as,  Let  thy  conduct  be  beyond  reproach.  Let  not 
ambition  mock  their  use  fid  toil.  Let  us  be  glad. 
Let  us  conquer  or  die. 

But  the  verb,  let,  may  be  in  the  indicative  mode; 
as,  The  child  let  the  bird  escape.  The  boy  did  not 
let  the  man  punish  his  dog. 


Verbs  297 

Exercise  95 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out  the  verbs 
and  explain  the  mode  of  each,  giving  your  reasons: 

1.  I  can  see  the  towers  of  London. 

2.  Here  the  spriiii^-  of  fresh  water  bubbles  from  the  rock. 

3.  The  mill  will  never  grind  with  the  water  that  is  past. 

4.  The  pen  is  mightier  than  the  sword. 

5.  His  work,  in  many  respects,  is  very  imperfect. 

6.  Slovenliness   and    indelicacy   of   character   generally 
go  together. 

7.  When  thy   friend   is   denounced  openly   and   boldly, 
espouse  his  cause. 

8.  Plutarch  calls  lying  the  vice  of  slaves. 

9.  An  upright  mind  will  never  be  at  a  loss  to  discern 
what  is  just  and  true,  lovely,  honest,  and  of  good  report. 

10.  If  he  has  been  here,  I  have  not  seen  him. 

11.  If  he  were  here,  I  should  like  to  meet  him. 

12.  If    thou    hadst    conquered,    the    world    would    have 
mourned. 

13.  If  thou  be  brave,  I  will  conduct  thee  through  this 
wilderness. 

14.  Were  it  not  for  leaving  thee,  my  child,  I  could  die 
happy. 

15.  He  may  study  his  lessons. 

16.  If  thou  hadst  said  him  nay,  it  had   been  sin. 

17.  It  must  be  true. 

18.  Give  me  your  hand. 

19.  Let  this  spirit  dominate  my  life. 

20.  Thou  shalt  not  steal. 

21.  Turn,  gentle  shepherd,  rest  awhile  upon  this  mossy 
bank. 

22.  My  soul  to-day  is  far  away, 
Sailing  the  Vesuvian  bay. 


^D 


298  An  English  Grammar 

23.  If  't  were  done  when  "t  is  done,  then  't  were  well, 
It  were  done  quickly.  — Shakespeare. 

24.  Down,  slave,  behold  the  governor ! 
Down,  Down  !     and  beg  for  mercy. 
Be  good  sweet  maid,  and  let  who  will  be  clever ; 
Do  noble  things,  not  dream  them  all  day  long; 
And  so  make  life,  death,  and  that  vast  forever 
One  grand  sweet  song.  ,  — Kingsley. 

26.  Almost  I  am  moved  to  laughter  at  that  passion 
Which  once  could  sway  and  thrill  me  to  the  bone. 
Terrible  when  we  laugh  at  what  we  loved. 

— Phillips. 
2y.  And  he  shall  charm  and  smooth,  and  breathe  and 
bless, 
The  roaring  of  war  shall  cease  upon  the  air. 
Falling  of  tears  and  all  the  voices  of  sorrow. 
And  he  shall  take  the  terror  from  the  grave. 

—Phillips. 

266.  Tense.  Study  the  verbs  in  the  follozving 
sentences: 

1.  The  wind  blows. 

2.  The  wind  blew. 

3.  The  wind  will  blow. 

4.  The  wind  has  blown. 

5.  The  w^ind  had  blown. 

The  verb,  bloivs,  in  the  first  sentence,  expresses 
the  thoug-ht  relation  in  present  time.  The  verb, 
blew,  in  the  second  sentence,  expresses  the  thought 
relation  in  the  past  lime.  The  verb  phrase,  will 
blozv,  in  the  third  sentence,  expresses  the  thought 
relation  in  the  future  time.  The  verb  phrase.  Jias 
blown,  in  the  fourth  sentence,  expresses  the  thought 


Verbs  -299 

relation  in  a  period  of  time  beginning  in  the  past, 
extending  up  to,  and  including  the  moment  of 
speaking.  The  verb  phrase,  had  bloivn,  in  the  fifth 
sentence,  expresses  the  thought  relation  in  a  period 
of  past  time  previous  to  another  period  of  past  time. 
The  verb  phrase,  will  have  blown,  in  the  sixth  sen- 
tence, expresses  a  thought  relation  in  a  period  of  fu- 
ture time  previous  to  another  period  of  future  time. 
This  property  of  the  verb  here  indicated  we  call 
tense. 

267.  Tense  Defined.  Tense  is  that  property 
of  the  verb  which  shows  us  the  period  of  time  in 
which  the  thought  relation  is  located. 

268.  Classes  of  Tense,  l-'rom  Section  j66  we 
can  see  that  the  thought  relation  may  be  located 
in  any  one  of  six  periods  of  time.  All  time  is 
naturally  divided  into  three  general  periods. 

1.  The  time  previous  to  the  moment  of  speak- 
ing is  called  past  lime. 

2.  A  certain  indefinite  period  of  time,  sometimes 
a  moment,  sometimes  an  hour,  a  day,  a  century,  cen- 
tering around  the  moment  of  speaking,  we  call  the 
present  time. 

3.  Time  which  is  to  follow  the  present,  we  call 
^he  future.  Bv  the  combination  and  division  of 
these  general  periods  of  time,  we  have  the  six 
periods  mentioned  in  Section  266.  Some  verbs 
show  that  the  thought  relation  is  located  in  some 
one  of  these  three  general  periods  of  time.    They 


300 


An  English  Grammar 


use  only  one  period  of  time  in  locating  the 
thought  relation.  We  call  the  tenses  of  these 
verbs  absolute  tenses. 

\^ou  will  notice  thai  the  verb  phrases  in  Section 
266  each  use  two  periods  of  time  in  locating  the 
thought  relation.  The  verb  phrase,  has  blown,  uses 
the  past  and  present;  the  verb  phrase,  had  blown, 
uses  two  periods  of  past  time;  the  verb  phrase,  will 
hair  blcnvii,  uses  two  periods  of  future  time  in  lo- 
cating the  thought  relation.  These  tenses  which 
employ,  two  periods  of  time  in  locating  the  time  of 
the  thought  relation,  we  call  relative  tenses. 

The  periods  of  time  in  which  thought  relations 
mav  be  located  by  verbs  or  verb  phrases  may  be  in- 
dicated as  follows: 

A   period   of  time  beginning   in    the   past,   extending   up   to,   and 
including  the  moment  of  speaking. 


] 

Past 

Pre 

sent 

Future 

< 

X 

X 

X 

A  period  of  past  time  previous  A   period   of   future   time   prc- 

to  another  period  of  past  time.  vious  to  another  period  of  future 

time. 

269.  Absolute  Tense  Defined.     An  absolute 
tense  is  a  tense  that  uses  only  one  period  of  time 


Verbs  301 

in  locating  the  thought  relation  in  time;  as,  TJie 
free  fell  to  the  ground. 

270.  Relative  Tense  Defined.  A  relative  tense 
is  a  tense  which  uses  two  periods  of  time  in  locat- 
ing the  time  of  the  thought  relation  expressed  by 
the  verb;  as,  He  had  come  fo  :'isif  us. 

271.  Classes  of  Absolute  Tenses.  It  is  easy  to 
see  from  Section  268  that,  since  there  are  three 
periods  of  time  in  which  absolute  tenses  may  lo- 
cate thought  relations,  we  must  have  three  abso- 
lute tenses.  We  call  them  present,  past,  and  fu- 
ture. 

272.  Present  Tense  Defined.  The  present 
tense  is  that  absolute  tense  which  locates  the 
thought  relation  expressed  by  the  verb  in  the 
present  time;  as,  TJie  lambs  play  in  the  pasture. 

273.  Past  Tense  Defined.  The  past  tense  is 
that  absolute  tense  which  locates  the  thought  re- 
lation expressed  by  the  verb  in  past  time;  as, 
The  hoy  fell  from  the  horse. 

274.  Future  Tense  Defined.  The  future  tense 
is  that  absolute  tense  which  locates  the  thought 
relation  expressed  by  the  verb  or  verb  phrase  in 
the  future  tim.e;  as.  My  sister  will  visit  us. 

275.  Classes  of  Relative  Tense.  We  may  also 
see  from  Section  268  that  any  relative  tense  uses 
two  periods  of  time  in  indicating  the  time  of  the 
thought  relation.     It  uses  the  present  and  past,  or 


302  An  English  Grammar 

_two  periods  of  past  time  or  two  periods  of  future 
time.  This  gives  us  three  kinds  of  relative  tenses. 
\Ve  call  them  present  perfect,  past  perfect,  and 
future  perfect. 

276.  The  Present  Perfect  Tense  Defined.  The 
present  perfect  tense  is  that  relative  tense  which 
locates  the  thought  relation  expressed  by  the  verb 
phrase  in  a  period  of  time  beginning  in  the  past, 
extending  up  to,  and  including  the  moment  of 
speaking;  as  He  has  invited  iis  freq^iently_^, 

277.  Past  Perfect  Tense  Defined.  The  past 
perfect  tense  is  that  relative  tense  which  locates 
the  thought  relation  expressed  by  the  verb  phrase 
in  a  period  of  past  time  previous  to  another  pe- 
riod of  past  time;  as,  JJ^e  had  recited  ojtr  lesson 
by  Jiooii  time.  "'^ 

278.  Future  Perfect  Tense  Defined.  The  fu- 
ture perfect  tense  is  that  relative  tense  which  lo- 
cates the  thought  relation  in  a  period  of  future 
time  previous  to  another  period  of  future  time; 
as,  /  shall  have  started  before  you  arrive. 

Exercise  96 

In  the  follozving  sentences  give  the  tense  of  each 
verb  or  verb  phrase  and  the  reasons.  Tell  whether 
the  verb  or  verb  phrase  locates  the  thought  relation 
in  the  present  time,  past  time,  or  future  time;  and 
show  Jiow  many  periods  of  time  are  used  in  locating 
the  thou  gilt  relation: 


Verbs  303 

1.  The  leaves  tremble  in  the  wind. 

2.  The  sun  is  shining  brightly. 

3.  Columbus  discovered  America  in  1492. 

4.  We  saw  General  Grant. 

5.  We  shall  attend  the  World's  Fair. 

6.  He  would  stand  still  in  the  midst  of  silence  and 
beauty. 

7.  Feelest  thou  not,  O  world,  the  earthquake  of  his 
chariot  thundering  up  Olympus? 

8.  My  sister  was  gathering  flowers. 

9.  Be  aye  sticking  in  a  tree,  Jack ;  it'll  be  growing 
while  ye're  sleeping. 

10.  I  have  cautioned  you  frequently.  _ 

11.  Wilford  had  roused  him  to  reply. 

12.  When  I  shall  have  brought  them  to  the  land,  then 
will  they  turn  to  other  gods. 

13.  I  have  sung  my  song.        

14.  I  had  sung  one  song  before  you  arrived^. 

15.  I  shall  have  sung  the  song  before  you  arrive. 

16.  By  slow  degrees  the  whole  truth  has  come  out. 

17.  Matilda    had   taken    her    accustomed    place    in    the 
window  seat.  " 

18.  I  shall  have  seen  all  the  wonders,  when  I  write  to 
you. 

19.  Plans  and  elevations  of  their  palace  have  been  made 
for  them,  and  are  now  being  engraved  for  the  public. 

20.  How  sleep  the  brave,  who  sink  to  rest 
By  all  their  country's  wishes  blessed. 

Note:  Pupils  sliouid  pass  mrr  tlie  classes  of  tenses  rapidly. 

279.  Uses  of  Tense  Forms.  The  ])resent  tense 
forms  do  not  always  express  thought  relations  in 
present  time  nor  do  the  past  tense  forms  always  ex- 
press relations  in  past  time.  Sometimes  the  context 
of  the  verb  or  verb  phrase  shows  that  the  tense  form 


304  An  English  Grammar 

of  the  verb  or  verl)  ])hrase  and    the   time    of   the 
thought  relation  do  not  correspond: 

1.  The  present  tense  form  may  have  the  foli^ow- 
iNG  uses  : 

a.  To  express  a  thought  relation  in  present  time ;  as, 
Tlic  boy  sees  his  dog. 

This  is  the  usual  use  of  the  present   form. 

b.  To  express,  a  universal  thought  relation  true  at  all 
times ;    as.  The  earth  is  round. 

I        c.  To  express  an  habitual  thought  relation  ;  as,  The  man 
-J   sells  goods. 

d.  To  express  a  thought  relation  in  future  time ;  as, 
My  sister  visits  her  friends  next  zveek. 

e.  To  express  a  thought  relation  which  has  existed  in 
the  past  or  will  exist  in  the  future  as  if  it  were  existing  in 
the  present  time ;  as,  They  pack  themselves  into  the  small 
room.  Patrick  Henry  arises,  trembling  with  agitation. 
The  words  fall  thick  and  fast  from  his  lips.  This  is  called 
the  historical  present  tense. 

2.  The  past  tense  form  may  have  the  following 
uses: 

a.  To  express  a  thought  relation  in  time  wholly  past; 
as.  The  boy  threw  the  stone  into  tJie  pond. 

This  is  the  regular  use  of  the  past  tense  form. 
j        b.  To  express  an  habitual  relation   in  past    time ;    as, 
-'  He  taught  in  this  school  many  years. 

I        c.  To  express  a  thought  relation  in  the  future  time;  as, 
^  //  he  should  be  gone  7vhen  yoii  come,  leave  a  message. 

d.  To  express  a  thought  relation  in  the  present  time ;  as, 
If  my  brother  were  present  he  zvonld  join  us. 

3.  The  future  tense  form  may  have  the  following 
uses: 

a.  To  express  a  thought  relation  in  future  time;  as, 
The  president  will  stop  in  our  city. 


Verbs  305 

This  is  the  regular  use  of  the  future  tense  form. 
b.  To  express  an  habitual  relation  in  the  present  time ; 
as,  Hr  will  sit  here  on  the  veranda  by  the  hour. 

4.  The  present  perfect  tense  form  may  have  the 
following  uses  : 

a.  To  express  a  thought  relation  in  a  period  of  time  bt^ 
ginning  in  the  past,  extending  up  to  and  including  the 
moment  of  s])eaking ;  as,  77//.s-  tnan  has  written  much  that 
IS  excellent. 

This  is  the  regular  use  of  the  present  perfect  tense 
form. 

b.  To  express  a  thought  relation  in  the  future  time ;  as. 
The  man  shall  not  depart  until  J  have  seen  /;//;/.    /^ 

5.  The  past  perfect  tense  form  may  have  the  fol- 
lowing use: 

a.  To  express  a  thought  relation  in  a  period  of  past 
time  previous  to  another  period  of  past  time ;  as.  He  had 
recited  his  lesson  before  zve  entered  the  room. 

6.  The  future  perfect  tense  form  may  have  the 
following  use  : 

a.  To  express  a  thought  relation  in  a  period  of  future 
time  previous  to  another  period  of  future  time ;  as,  He  will 
have  sung  before  zve  arrive. 

Exercise  97 

Gk'e  the  tense  form  of  each  verb  or  verb  phrase 
in  the  following  sentences.  State  the  time  in  which 
the  thought  relation  is  seen  to  exist: 

1.  He  hears  his  daughter's  voice. 

2.  Mgn  is  mortal. 

3.  The  man  travels  for  Hermand  and  Knox. 


'^"♦^»  An  English  Grammar 

4.  My  brother  goes  to  New  York  to-morrow  on  busi- 
ness. 

5.  They  cross  the  river ;  they  fire  the  town ;  they  form 
under  cover  of  the  smoke;  they  advance  up  the  hill;  they 
are  driven  back. 

6.  I  can  see  the  nation  gathering  her  forces  for  the 
mighty  struggle ;  they  put  forth  one  mighty  effort  and  the 
end  comes. 

7.  The  little  birds  sang  gayly  in  the  trees. 

8.  He  li\ed  in  this  little  hamlet  for  many  years. 

9.  If  I  should  be  there,  you  would  be  surprised. 

10.  If  my  sister  were  here  she  would  enjoy  the  lecture. 

11.  The  teachers  will  go  to  Denver  the  coming  summer. 

12.  He  will  wander  in  the  woods  day  after  day. 

13.  Milton  has  given  us  Comus. 

14.  The  hour  shall  not  strike  till  T  have  gained  my 
point. 

15.  He  had  written  a  poem  before  this  book  appeared. 

16.  If  I  had  walked  rapidly,  I  should  have  overtaken 
you. 

17.  At  the  close  of  this  year,  I  shall  have  finished  my 
course. 

18.  The  truth  itself  is  not  believed 
From  one   who  often   has   deceived. 

19.  The  poor  little  hedgehog  uncurled  itself  and  dared 
to  breathe  aloud. 

20.  "  I  am  the  princess  of  Saxe-Royal."  she  said  to  him, 
with  a  benignant  smile ;  "  and  you  have  got  through  that 
minuet  very  fairly.'' 

280.  Voice.  Notice  in  the  following  sen- 
tences, whether  the  attribute  expressed  by  the  verb 
is  exerted  by  the  thought  subject  and  directed  away 


rcrbs  307 

from  it  or  is  exerted  by  some  other  object  of  thought 
and  directed  toward,  exerted  upon,  or  actually  en- 
dured by  the  thought  subject: 

1.  The  carpenter  saws  the  board. 

2.  The  board  was   sawed  by  the  carpenter. 

3.  The  farmer  plows  the  field. 

4.  The  field  was  plow^ed  by  the  farmer. 

a.  In  the  first  sentence  the  verb,  sazvs,  ex])resses 
an  attribute  that  is  exerted  or  put  forth  by  the 
thought  subject,  fJw  carpenter,  and  is  directed 
toward  or  exerted  tipon  the  object  of  thotight,  flic 
board. 

The  same  thing  is  true  in  the  third  sentence. 
The  attribute  expressed  by  the  verb,  plows,  is  ex- 
erted by  the  thought  subject,  fJic  farmer,  and  is  di- 
rected away  from  it  and  exerted  upon  the  object 
of  thought,  fJie  field. 

b.  In  the  second  sentence  tlie  attribute  expressed 
by  the  verb  phrase,  zvas  sawed,  is  not  exerted  by  the 
thought  subject,  tJie  board.  It  is  exerted  by  the  ob- 
ject of  thought,  the  carpenter,  and  is  directed 
toward,  exerted  upon,  or  actually  endured  by  the 
thought  subject,  tJie  board. 

The  same  thing  is  true  in  the  fourth  sentence. 
The  attribttte  expressed  by  the  verb  phrase,  zuas 
ploived,  is  not  exerted  by  the  thought  subject,  the 
field,  and  directed  away  from  it,  but  it  is  exerted  by 
the  object  of  thought,  the  fanner,  and  directed 
toward,  exerted  upon,  or  actually  endured  by  the 
thought  subject,  the  field.  The  propert}'  of  the  verb 


308  A)i  English  Grauunar 

ov  verb  phrase  which  indicates  this  to  us  we  call 
voice. 

281.  Voice  Defined.  It  is  clear  from  what  has 
been  said  in  Section  280,  that  voice  can  belono- 
only  to  attril)utive  verbs.  Voice  is  that  property 
of  the  attributive  verb  w^hich  shows  whether  the 
attribute  expressed  by  it  is  exerted  by  the  thought 
subject  and  directed  away  from  it,  or  is  exerted  by 
some  other  object  of  thought  and  directed 
toward,  exerted  upon,  or  actually  endured  by  the 
thought  subject. 

282.  Classes  of  Voice.  Tt  is  also  clear  from 
what  has  been  said  in  Section  280,  that  voice  is  of 
two  kinds.     We  call  them  active  and  passive. 

283.  Active  Voice  Defined.  Active  voice  is 
that  voice  which  shows  that  the  attribute  ex- 
pressed by  the  verb  is  exerted  or  put  forth  by  the 
thought  subject  and  is  directed  away  from  it;  as, 

The  boy   broke   fJic   pitcher.     The  boys  tramped 
fhrongJi  file  woods. 

284.  Passive  Voice  Defined.  The  passive 
voice  is  that  voice  which  shows  that  the  attribute 
expressed  by  the  verb  is  exerted  by  an  object  of 
thought  other  than  the  thought  subject  and  is  di- 
rected toward,  exerted  upon,  or  actually  endured 
by  the  thought  subject;  as,  The  kite  was  torn  by 
the  wind.     TJie  cat  was  worried  by  the  dog. 


Verbs  309 

Exercise  98 

In  flic  follozving  sentences  fell  ■wliicJi  verbs  or 
verb  phrases  are  active  voice  and  zvhich  passive  and 
tvhy: 

1.  The  boy  ate  the  apple. 

2.  The  children  climbed  the  hill. 

3.  The  box  was  sent  by  my  uncle. 

4.  The  tree  was  blown  down  by  the  wind. 

5.  The  girl  talks  rapidly. 

6.  The  party  walked  over  the  hills. 

7.  The  house  was  struck  by  lightning. 

8.  The  stream  flows  from  the  mountain. 

9.  The  mill  is  turned  by  the  water. 
10.  The  eagle   carried   off  the   child. 

285.  How  the  Passive  Voice  is  Formed.   The 

passive  voice  is  formed  l\v  the  union  of  some  form 
of  the  verb,  be,  with  tlie  past  or  ])erfect  ]xirticiple  of 
an  attributive  verb;  as,  Tlie  cozv  was  milked  by  the 
maid.  The  i^irl  is  helped  b\'  her  uncle.  The  child 
has  been  found /n'  the  scarchincr  party. 

Not  every  combination  of  tlie  verb,  be,  with  a 
i:)ast  or  perfect  participle  of  an  attributive  verl), 
however,  f^ives  us  the  passive  voice.  The  forms  of 
the  verb,  be,  unite  with  the  past  or  perfect  partici- 
ple of  the  attri])Utive  \'erb  to  form  tlie  ])assivc  voice 
onlv  when  the  participle  denotes  actual  endurance 
of  the  attribute  expressed  b}-  it  on  the  part  of  the 
thous^ht  subject.  The  attriljule  expressed  by  the 
participle  must  be  exerted  l)y  some  object  of  thou.o^ht 
other  than  the  thought  subject  and  directed  toward, 


310  An  English  Gromniar 

exerted  upon,  or  actually  endured  by  the  thought 
subject ;  as,  TJie  runner  was  fatigued  by  his  exer- 
tions. 

In  this  sentence  we  have  the  passive  voice  be- 
cause the  attribute  expressed  by  the  participle,  fa- 
tigued, is  put  forth  by  the  object  of  thought,  exer- 
tions, and  directed  toward,  exerted  upon,  or  actually 
endured  by  the  thought  subject,  the  runner. 

When  the  past  participle  combined  with  the  verb, 
be,  denotes  merely  a  condition  as  a  result  of  action, 
when  it  expresses  a  mere  state,  its  combination  with 
the  verb,  be,  does  not  form  the  passive  voice;  as, 
The  runner  was  fatigued. 

*286.  Classes  of  Active  Voice.  In  the  sen- 
tence. The  child  Jiiirt  Jiiniself,  the  verb,  hurt,  while 
it  is  active  in  form,  is  really  passive  in  meaning,  be- 
cause the  object  of  thought,  himself,  which  receives 
the  attribute  expressed  by  the  verb,  is  the  same  as 
the  thought  subject.  Tn  the  sentence,  Tlie  boy  threzv 
the  ball,  the  verb,  threzv,  is  active  in  form  and  also 
in  meaning.  We  may  say  then  we  have  two  classes 
of  active  voice: 

a.  Active  in  form  and  meaning;  as.  The  zvind 
destroyed  the  building. 

b.  Active  in  form  and  passive  in  meaning;  as, 
Every  one  owes  himself  an  education. 

287.  Classes  of  Passive  Voice.  Tn  the  sen- 
tence. The  free  was  bhwn  down  by  the  zvind,  the 


Xote:     Pass  quickly  over   Sections  286-28S. 


Verbs  311 

verb  phrase,  was  hlozvn,  is  passive  voice.    It  is  pas- 
sive in  form  and  passive  in  meaning. 

In  the  sentence,  I'he  train  was  zvrecked,  the  verb 
phrase,  was  zvrecked,  is  passive  in  form,  but  the  at- 
tribute expressed  by  the  participle,  zvrecked,  is  not 
exerted  by  some  other  object  of  thought  upon  the 
thought  subject  or  actually  endured  by  it.  This 
shows  that  the  phrase  is  not  passive  in  meaning.  It 
has  no  voice.  The  verb  phrase,  zvas  wrecked,  has 
no  voice  any  more  than  has  the  expression,  zvas 
dusty,  in  the  sentence,  TJie  train  zvas  dusty.  Thus 
we  may  say  that  we  have  two  classes  of  expressions 
that  look  like  passive  voice : 

a.  Passive  in  form  and  meaning;  as.  The  zvin- 
dozv  was  broken  by  the  ball.     This  is  passive  voice. 

b.  Passive  in  form  Init  no  voice  in  meaning;  as, 
The  boy  was  devoted  to  his  zvork.  This  is  not  pas- 
sive voice. 

288.  Forms  that  are  not  Passive.  We  ma\ 
see  from  Section  287  chat  there  are  some  forms 
that  look  like  passive  voice  and  may  be  easily  mis- 
taken for  the  ])assive  voice,  which  are  not  passive 
voice.  The  following  combinations  cannot  gi\'e  us 
passive  voice: 

a.  An  adjective  in  the  predicate  with  a  pure  verb 
does  not  constitute  the  passive  voice;  as.  The  horse 
was  tired. 

b.  A  substantive  word  in  the  ])rc(licate  with  a 


312  All  Englis/i  Grammar 

pure  verb  does  not  constitute  the  passive  voice;  as, 
It  was  pure  stubborness  on  the  part  of  the  driver. 

c.  When  there  is  a  past  participle  in  the  predi- 
cate with  a  pure  verb  the  passive  voice  may  exist 
but  not  necessarily.  It  is  passive  voice  then  only 
when  the  perfect  participle  denotes  that  the  attri- 
bute expressed  by  it  is  exerted  upon  the  thought 
subject  by  some  other  object  of  thought  or  that  the 
attribute  expressed  by  the  past  participle  is  actually 
endured  by  the  thought  subject:  as,  The  train  was 
wrecked  by  tramps.  The  Held  was  plowed  by  the 
fanner. 

The  verb  phrases,  was  wrecked  and  was  plowed, 
are  both  passive  voice.  In  the  sentences,  The  train 
was  wrecked,  Tlie  Held  was  plowed,  however,  the 
same  verb  phrases  are  not  passive  voice  at  all.  The 
past  participles,  wrecked  and  plozved,  here  merely 
express  the  condition  of  tlie  train  and  the  field. 

Exercise  99 

In  the  follozving  sentences  point  out  the  verbs 
and  verb  phrases  and  shozv  zvh ether  they  are  active 
Z'oice,  passive  voice,  or  no  I'oicc  at  all: 

1.  The  bird  sings  in  the  tree. 

2.  The  flowers  bloom   by  the  brook. 

3.  The  boy  bought  a  knife. 

4.  The  wind  blew  the  nuts  from  the  tree. 

5.  The  rider  was  thrown  by  the  horse. 

6.  The  cistern  was  filled  by  the  man. 

7.  The  man  was  weary. 

8.  Her  motlier  was  anxious. 


yerbs  313 

9.  The  paper  was  mutilated. 

10.  The  book  had  been  badly  torn  when  I  found  it. 

11.  Great  is  the  sun  and  wide  he  goes 
Through  empty  heaven  without  repose : 
And  in  the  blue  and  gleaming  days 

More  thick  than  rain  he  showers  his  rays, 

— Stevenson. 

12.  The  wind  blows,  the  sun  shines,  the  birds  sing  loud, 
The  blue  sky  is  flecked  with  fleecy  dappled  cloud, 
Over  earth's  rejoicing  fields  the  children  dance  and 

sing, 
And  the  frogs  pipe  in  showers,  "It  is  Spring!     It 
is  Spring !  " 

— Thaxter. 

Exercise  100 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out  the  verbs  or 
verb  phrases  and  show  wJi ether  they  are  active  or 
passive  voice.  Change  the  verbs  or  verb  phrases  in 
the  active  voice  to  the  passive  voice,  if  you  can,  and 
those  in  the  passive  voice  to  the  active  voice.  Shoiv 
clearly  what  7'erbs  or  verb  phrases  have  no  voice 
and  why: 

1.  The  engine  draws  the  train. 

2.  The  story  has  been  told  by  many  writers. 

3.  England  had  taxed  the  colonies  unjustly. 

4.  Marco  Polo  tells  us  strange  stories. 

5.  The  Mississippi  was  discovered  by  DeSoto  in  1541. 

6.  The  prudent  neither  waste  time  nor  money. 

7.  Paris  was  besieged  by  the  Prussians  in  1871. 

8.  Every  Patriot  will  defend  the  flag. 

9.  Our  friends  came  last  week. 

TO.  We  were  entertained   in  royal  style. 

II.  The  singer  was  fatigued  by  his  exertions. 


314  An  English  Grammar 

12.  The  traveler  was  weary. 

13.  The  minister  was  fatigued. 

14.  I  go  where  duty  calls  me. 

15.  The  soldier  was  sleepy  and  tired. 

Exercise  loi 

Write  two  sentences  illustrating  the  active  voice 
and  two  ilhistrafing  the  passive  voice. 

Exercise  102 

In  the  follozuing  sentences,  state  whether  the 
verbs  or  verb  phrases  are  active  or  passive  or  no 
voice: 

1.  Where  shall  we  dine  to-day? 

2.  Frequently  the  exordium  is  too  long,  and  the  perora- 
tion interminable. 

3.  The  mother  loves  her  child. 

4.  The  speaker  corrected  himself. 

5.  The  train  was  wrecked  at  midnight. 

6.  The  slave  was  devoted  to  his  master. 

7.  If  she  hate  me,  then  believe. 
She  shall  die  ere  I  will  grieve. 

8.  He  that  complies  against  his  will 
Is  of  the  same  opinion  still. 

9.  I  held  it  truth,  with  him  who  sings 
To  one  clear  harp  in  divers  tones, 
That  men  may  rise  on  stepping-stones, 
Of  their  dead  selves  to  higher  things. 

10.  One  having  moved  from  his  cla_\'  tenement 
Was  passing  softh-  in  a  rapture  sweet 
Through  the  new  country  of  the  st)ul.  and  came 
Upon  a  sudden  radiance  of  hlooin 


Verbs  315 

He  stood  before  it  wrapped  in  reverie, 
Till  some  one  touched  him,  sa\ing-,  "  It  is  yours." 

—Buffs. 

289,  Person  and  Number.  Study  the  follow- 
ing sentences  and  notice  the  relation  between  the 
form  of  the  verb  and  the  person  and  number  of  the 
subject: 

1.  I  see  the  hills  of  Jordan. 

2.  He  sees  the  host  advancing. 

3.  They  see  the  outcome  of  the  scheme. 

4.  You  see  how  well  we  have  succeeded. 

5.  Thou  seest  his  wants. 

Some  of  the  subjects  in  these  sentences  are  first 
person,  some  second,  some  third;  some  of  the  sub- 
jects are  singular  and  some  of  them  are  plural. 
We  have  the  same  verb  in  each  sentence.  The 
verb  changes  its  form  in  some  instances  to  corre- 
spond or  harmonize  or  agree  with  its  subject.  These 
changes  in  the  form  of  the  verb  to  mark  its  agree- 
ment with  its  subject,  we  call  person  and  number. 
Person  and  number  are  thus  not  in  any  true  sense 
properties  of  the  verb,  because  this  verb,  see,  means 
the  same  in  all  these  sentences.  The  change  in  the 
form  of  the  word  does  not  denote  a  change  in  its 
meaning,  as  is  the  case  in  a  true  property. 

290.  Person  and  Number  Defined.  Person 
and  number  are  the  changes  which  the  form  of 
the  verb  undergoes  to  mark  its  agreement  with 
its  subject.     The  subject  is  said  to  govern  the 


316  An  English  Grammar 

verb,  which  means  simply  that  the  verb  accommo- 
dates itself  in  form  to  the  form  of  the  subject. 

291.  Changes  in  Form  to  Denote  Person  and 
Number.  The  changes  which  take  place  in  the 
verb  to  denote  person  and  number  may  be  indi- 
cated as  follows: 

First  Person :  ■  I  write,  was,  know,  stand,  go. 
Second  Person:   Thou  write^^,  \\2iSt,  know^^y^  standf?^^ 
gotst. 

Third  Person:  He  write.?  or  wnitth,  is,  knowj",  or 
know eth,  stand.?,  or  standi//?,  goes,  or  goetli. 

We  can  see  from  this  table  that  the  following 
changes  are  made  in  the  verb  to  mark  its  agreement 
with  its  subject: 

a.  To  change  from  first  to  second  person : 

t  is  added  to  some  verbs ;  as,  /  zvas,  thou  wast. 
st  is  added  to  some  verbs ;  as,  /  zirite,  thou  zvritest. 
or   est  is   added   to  some   verbs ;   as,   /   knozu,   thou 
knotvest. 

b.  To  change  from  first  person  to  third  person : 

1.  Add  .y  to  some  verbs;  as,  /  stand,  He  stands. 

2.  Add  es  to  some  verbs ;  as,  /  go,  He  goes. 

3.  Add  th  to  some  verbs ;  as,  /  zvrite,  he  zmiteth. 

4.  Add  eth  to  some  verbs ;  as,  /  stand,  he  standeth. 

The  terminations,  si,  th,  eth,  est,  and  t,  survive 
in  the  English  language  only  in  the  Bible,  in  prayer, 
in  poetry,  and  in  the  solemn  style  of  writing. 

Therefore,  except  in  the  verb,  he,  which  has  dif- 
ferent forms:  as,  am,  are,  zuas,  zvere,  and  so  forth, 
the  only  changes  in  the  English  language  to  denote 


Verbs  317 

person  and  number  are  the  terminations,  s  and  es; 
as,  /  know,  He  knozvs;  I  go,  lie  goes. 

Exercise  103 

In  the  follozuing  sentences  note  the  relation  be- 
tween the  verb  and  its  subject  in  each  case.  Tell 
zvhether  the  subject  is  singular  or  plural  and  whether 
the  verb  is  singidar  or  plural: 

1.  I  know  that  my  Redeemer  liveth, 

2.  He  knows  where  the  wild  flowers  grow. 

3.  They  know  where  the  wild  flowers  grow. 

4.  The  scissors  are  dull. 

5.  Evil  news  rides  post,  while  good  news  waits. 

6.  The  tongs  are  hot. 

7.  The  sheep  was  fast  in  the  fence. 

8.  The  sheep  were  driven  to  the  pond  and  washed. 

9.  The  school  was  dismissed  for  the  holidays. 

10.  The  school  were  not  all  present. 

11.  Henry,  William,  and  Charles,  were  kings. 

12.  The  boy  or  his  father  is  at  fault. 

13.  Each  man,  woman,  and  child  was  given  a  prize. 

14.  Every  boy  and  every  girl  is  expected  to  be  obedient. 

15.  The  officers  and  not  the  private  were  at  fault. 

16.  The  children,  or  the  servant,  or  I  am  to  blame. 

17.  Red,  white,  and  blue  makes  a  pretty  flag. 

18.  Grace  and  beauty  is  a  desirable  combination. 

19.  "  Paint  me  as  I  am,"  said  Cromwell. 

20.  "  You  are  excused,"  said  the  teacher,  in  a  pleasant 
voice. 

21.  He  is  the  freeman  whom  the  truth  makes  free. 

22.  Thou  art  a  pretty  fellow ! 

23.  The  storm  was  dreadful  along  the  Atlantic  coast. 

24.  The  islands  were  beautiful  as  we  sailed  in  and  out 
among  them. 


318  An  English  Granimar 

25.  'Tis  as  easy  as  lying. 

26.  Thou  standest  on  the  threshold  of  life. 

27.  Thou  waitest  for  the  coming  of  thy  mate. 

28.  Thou  pretty  child,  why  weepest  thou? 

29.  He  praycth  best  who  loveth  best 

All  things,  both  great  and  small.  — Whittier. 

30.  I  dare  do  all  that  may  become  a  man ; 

Who  dares  do  more  is  none.    -      — Shakespeare. 

292.  From  the  study  of  the  sentences  in  the 
preceding-  list  we  may  formulate  the  following 
principles  with  regard  to  the  agreement  of  verbs 
with  their  subjects : 

1.  A  singular  subject  requires  a  singular  verb; 
as.  The  hoy  recognizes  his  friends. 

2.  A  plural  subject  requires  a  plural  verb;  as, 

The  boys  are  eager  to  start. 

3.  If  a  subject  be  plural  in  form  and  singular 
in  meaning,  usage  determines  the  form  of  the 
verb ;  sometimes  it  is  singular  and  sometimes  it  is 
plural;  as,  TJie  nezvs  is  encouraging.  The  ashes 
are  zvJiite. 

4.  If  a  subject  be  singular  in  form  and  either 
singular  or  plural  in  meaning,  the  verb  is  singular 
or  plural  according  to  the  meaning  of  the  subject; 

as,  The  deer  was  shot  by  the   hunter.      The   deer 
were  found  in  large  numbers  in  this  forest. 

5.  If  the  subject  be  plural  in  form  but  either 
singular  or  plural  in  meaning,  the  verb  is  plural ; 

as,  The  tongs  are  hot. 


Verbs  319 

6.  When  the  subject  is  a  collective  noun,  it 
takes  a  singular  verb  if  the  collection  be  thought 
of  as  a  whole;  as,  TJie  family  was  surprised. 

It  takes  a  plural  verb  if  the  mind  dwells  upon 
the  individuals  of  the  collection ;  as,  The  family  were 
divided  in  their  opinions  with  regard  to  the  enter- 
prise. 

7.  The  compound  subject  or  abridged  com- 
pound sentence : 

a.  Parts  which  are  singular  but  which  are  taken 
collectively;  that  is,  connected  by  and  or  some  copu- 
lative conjunction,  take  a  plural  verb;  as,  James, 
William,  and  Alary  are  good  students. 

b.  Parts  which  are  singular  and  are  taken  sep- 
arately; that  is,  connected  by  or  or  nor,  or  if  pre- 
ceded by  each,  every  or  no,  though  connected  by 
and,  take  a  singular  verb;  as.  The  father,  mother,  or 
son  is  coming  in  the  morning.  Each  student  and 
each  teacher  is  to  have  a  vacation.  Every  man, 
zvoman,  and  child  was  to  he  ready  to  move. 

c.  If  the  parts  of  the  subject  be  emphatically 
distinguished,  the  verb  must  agree  with  the  em- 
phatic part ;  as.  TJic  father  and  not  the  children  was 
to  blame. 

d.  If  the  parts  differ  in  person  and  number  and 
are  taken  separately,  the  verb  agrees  with  the  part 
nearest  to  it;  as.  The  zvoman  or  the  men  were  at 
fault. 

e.  Parts  which  are  singular  and  joined  by  copu- 


3-^*  An  English  Grammar 

lative  conjunctions,  if  taken  together  as  one  thing, 
require  a  sino-ular  verb ;  as,  Bread  and  butter  is  good 
food. 

8.  Titles  of  books,  though  plural  in  form,  are 
singular  in  meaning  and  should  have  a  singular 
verb;  as,  "Gulliver's  Travels''  was  zvritten  by 
Szvift. 

g.  The  pronoun,  you,  always  takes  a  plural 
verb  even  when  it  is  singular  in  meaning;  as, 
Mary,  you  were  at  fault. 

10.  Sometimes  a  singular  noun  takes  a  plural 
meaning  from  the  distinguishing  adjectives 
which  modify  it;  as,  Mental,  moral,  and  physical 
education  were  required  from  the  first. 

11.  The  pronoun,  I,  always  takes  the  plural 
form  of  the  attributive  verb ;  as,  /  know  it,  I  see  it. 
It  takes  the  singular  form  of  the  pure  verb,  how- 
ever; as,  /  am  in  earnest.     1  was  absent. 

Exercise  104 

Construct  sentences  illustrating  each  of  the  prin- 
ciples stated  in  Section  2Q2. 

Exercise  105 

Fill  the  follozving  blanks  zvith  the  proper  forms 
of  suitable  verbs: 

1.  Either  of  you  able  to  do  it. 

2.  Each  of  the  pupils  —  studied  the  lesson. 

3.  Neither   of   the     prisoners    guilty     of     the 

charge. 

4.  No  one  of  the  animals  dangerous. 


Verbs  321 

5.  Neither  of  them  ten  years  old. 

6.  No  one  of  the  men  escaped. 

7.  Every  man,  woman,  and  child  lost. 

8.  Neither  of  the  boats  injured. 

9.  The  ashes  hght. 

10.  Oats  a  good  price. 

11.  The  molasses  fine. 

12.  The  news  bad. 

13.  Politics  his  delight. 

14.  The  deer pursued  by  the  hunter. 

15.  Truth  and  Mercy  met  in  the  way. 

16.  Righteousness  and  Peace  kissed  each  other. 

17.  The  lion  and  the  lamb  lain  down  together. 

18.  Elegance  and   ease  a    combination    which 

pleases. 

293.  The  Strong  Verb.  A  strong  verb  is  a 
verb  which  forms  its  past  indicative  and  perfect 
participle  by  some  internal  change;  as,  break, 
broke,  broken.  Most  of  the  irregular  verbs  are 
strong  verbs.    Sometimes  these  are  called  old  verbs. 

294.  The  Weak  Verb.  A  weak  verb  is  a  verb 
which  forms  its  past  indicative  and  perfect  parti- 
ciple by  adding  d  or  edto  the  present  indicative; 

as,  call,  called,  called.  The  weak  verbs  are  for  the 
most  part  regular  verbs.  Sometimes  they  are  called 
new  verbs. 

295.  Conjugation.  It  is  often  convenient  to 
have  the  different  forms  of  the  verb  arranged  in 
the  regular  order.  This  is  called  the  conjugation 
of  the  verb.  Conjugation  is  the  regular  arrange- 
ment of  all  the  forms  of  the  verb  throughout  the 


322 


An  English  Grammar 


different  voices,  modes,  tenses,  persons,  and  num- 
bers. 

'^'  296.  Conjunction  of  the  Verb,  be.    The  pure 

verb,  be,  is  conjugated  as  follows: 
Principal  Parts 

Present  Indicaiive.  be.  Past  Indicative,  was. 

Perfect  Participle,  been. 
Indicative  Mode 
Present  Tense 
Plural 
We  are. 
(Thou  art.)         You  are. 
They  are. 

Past  Tense 

Plural 
We  were. 
Yon  were. 
(Thou  zvast  or  wert.) 
He  was. 


Singular 

1.  I  am. 

2.  You  are. 

3.  He  is. 

Singular 

1.  I  was. 

2.  You  were 


Singular 
i;  If  I  be. 

2.  If  you  be. 

3.  I  he  be. 


(If  thou  be.) 


Singular 
If  I  were. 
If  you  were. 

(If  thou  7vert.) 
If  he  were. 


They  were. 
Subjunctive  Mode 

Present  Tense 
Plural 

If  we  be. 
If  yon  be. 
If  they  be. 

Past   Tense 

Plural 

f  If  we 

If  you . 

If  they 


*Note:  Do  not  have  pupils  commit  to  memory  the  conjugation 

of  verbs.  These  are  for  reference. 

.    fNoTE :  Blanks  in  the  subjunctive  show  where  it  is  like  the  in- 
dicative. 


Verbs  323 

Indicative   Mode 

Future  Tense 


Singular                                                         Plural 

I. 

I   shall  be.                                    We  shall  be. 

2. 

You  will  be.                                  You  will  be. 

(Thou  wilt  be.) 

3- 

He  will  be.                                    They  will  be. 

Subjunctive  Mode 

Future  Tense 

Singular                                                          Plural 

J  _ 

If    T                                                                     Tf    wr 

--> 

Ail                  ,                                                                                    J  1      \VC         ■        , 
It     T011                                                                                                               It      iri^tl 

— ■ 

ii  _\ULi           .                                              xi   yuu , 

f'lf  thou  zvill  be.) 

3- 

Tf    hn                                                                        Tf    fl,^,- 

ii   lie          .                                               11   int  V           . 
Indicative   Mode 

Present  Perfect  Tense 

Singular                                                                           Plural 

I. 

1  have  been.                                                    We  have  been. 

o 

You  have  been.     (Thou  hast  been.)         You  have  been. 

3- 

He  lias  been.                                                  Thev  have  been 

Note:  Usually  the  subjunctive  is  given  only  in  the  four  tenses- 
present,  past,  present  perfect,  and  past  perfect.  Here  it  is  given  in 
all  the  tenses  so  that  the  pupil  may  compare  it  with  the  indicative. 

Subjunctive  Mode 

Present  Perfect  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

1.  if  1 .  If  we . 

2.  If  you .     (If  thou  have  been.)       If  you . 

3.  If  he  have  been.  Tf  they 

Indicative  Mode 
Past  Perfect  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

1.  I  had  been.  We  had  been. 

2.  You  had  been.     (Thou  hadst  been.)  ^'ou  had  been. 

3.  He  had  been.  They  had  bet-n. 


324  An  English  Grammar 

Subjunctive  Mode 

Past  Perfect   Tense 
Singular  Plural 

I.   If   I .  If   Nve- 


2.  If  you .     (If  thou  had  been.)      If  you . 

3.  If  he .  If  they . 

Indicative  Mode 

>   Future  Perfeet  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

1.  I  shall  have  been.  We  shall  have  been. 

2.  You  will  have  been.  You  will  have  been. 

(Thou  -unit  have  been.) 

3.  He  will  have  been.  They  will  have  been. 

Subjunctive  Mode 

Future  Perfect  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

1.  If  1 .  If  we . 

2.  If  you .  If  you . 

(If  thou  zvill  have  been.)       If  they . 

3.  If  he . 

Imperative  Mode 
Be. 

Infinitives 
Present.  Perfect. 

To  be.  To  have  been. 

Participles 

Present.  Perfect. 

Being.  Having  been. 

297.  Conjugation  of  the  Verb,  telL 

Principal   Parts 

Present  hidicatwe,  tell.  Past  Indicathe,  told. 

Perfect  Participle,  told. 


"erbs 


'62o 


Singular 

1.  I  tell. 

2.  You  tell.  (Thou  tellest.) 

3.  He  tells. 


Active  Voice 
Indicative  Mode 

Present  Tense 


Singular 
If  I 


Subjunctive  Mode 

Present  Tense 


If  you . 

(If  thou  tell.) 
If  he  tell. 


Singular 

1.  I  told. 

2.  You  told. 

(Thou  toldst.) 

3.  He  told. 

Singular 
I.   If   I . 


Indicative.  Mode 

Past   Tense 


Past   Tense 


2.  If  you . 

(If  thou  told.) 

3.  If  he . 


Plural 
We  tell. 
You  tell. 
They  tell. 


Plural 
If  we — 


If  you- 


If  thev- 


Plura: 
We  told. 
You  told. 

They  told. 

Plural 

If  we 

If  you 


If  thev- 


Indicative   Mode 

Future  Tense 


Singular  tuiure   1  ensc  PK,ral 

1.  I  shall  tell.  We  shall  tell. 

2.  You  will  tell.  (Thou  zvilt  tell.)  They  will  tell. 

3.  He  will  tell.  You  will  tell. 

Subjunctive  Mode 

Singular  Future  Tense 

I.  If  I . 

2    If  you .  (If  thou  will  tell.)      If  you 

3.  If  he .  If  they 


Plural 
If  we 


326  An  English  Grammar 

Indicative   Mode 

Present  Perfect  Tense 

Singular  Plural 

1 .  I  have  told.  We  have  told. 

2.  You  have  told.  You  have  told. 

(Thou  hast  told.) 
•^    He  has  told.  Thev  have  told. 


Subjunctive  Mode 

Present  Perfect  Tense 

Singular                                                                      Plural 

I. 

If  I          .                                                    If  we 

2. 

If  you .     (If  thou  have  told.)  If  you . 

3- 

If  he  have  told.                                  If  they . 

Indicative  Mode 

Past  Perfect   Tense 

Singular                                               Plural 

1. 

1  had  told.                              We  had  told. 

2. 

You  liad  told.                        You  had  told. 

(Then  hadst  told.) 

3- 

He  had  told.                          They  had  told. 

Subjunctive  Mode 

Past  Perfect   Tense 

Singular                                                                      Plural 

I. 

If  I         .                                                    If  we 

2. 
1. 

If  you .     (If  thou  had  told.)      If  you . 

If  he .                                                  If  thev . 

Indicative  Mode 

Future  Perfect  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

1.  I  shall  have  told.  We  shall  have  told. 

2.  ^'ou   will  have  told.  You  will  have  told. 

(Thou  unit  have  told.) 

3.  He  will  have  told.  They  will  have  told. 


Singular 
I.   If  I 


Verbs 

Subjunctive  Mode 

Future  Perfect  Tense 
Plural 

If  we . 

If  vou , 


32Z 


2.  If  you . 

(If  thou  will  have  told.) 

3.  If  he If  they — 

Imperative  Mode 
Tell. 


Present. 
To  tell. 


Present. 
Telling. 


Singular 

1.  I  am  told. 

2.  You  are  told. 

(Thou  art  told.) 
X.  He  is  told. 


Singular 

1.  I  was  told. 

2.  You  were  told. 

(Thou  wast  told.) 

3.  He  was  told. 


Infinitives 

Perfect. 
To  have  told. 

Participles 

Perfect. 
Having  told. 

Passive  Voice 

Indicative  Mode 

Present  Tense 
Plural 


We  are  told. 
You  are  told. 

They  are  told. 

Past  Tense 

Plural 
We  were  told. 
You  were  told. 

Thev  were  told. 


^^^  An  English  Grammar 

Subjunctive  Mode 

Present  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

1.  If  I  be  told.  If  we  be  told. 

2.  If  you  be  told.  If  you  be  told. 

(If  thou  be  told.) 

3.  If  he  be  told.  If  they  be  told. 

Past  Tense 
Singular                   •  Plural 

1.  If  1  were  told.  If  we 

2.  If  you .  If  you '-, 

(If  thou  were  told.) 

3.  If  he  were  told.  If  they . 

Indicative  Mode 

Future  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

1.  I  shall  be  told.  We  shall  be  told. 

2.  You  will  be  told.  You  will  be  told. 

{Thou  wilt  be  told.) 

3.  He  will  be  told.  They  will  be  told. 

Subjunctive  Mode 

Future  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

1.  If    I .  Tf    ^g 

2.  If  you .  If  you . 

(If  thou  will  be  told.) 

3.  If  he .  jf  th^y 

Indicative  Mode 

Present  Perfect  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

1.  1  have  been  told.  We  have  been  told. 

2.  You  have  been  told.  You  have  been  told. 

(Thou  hast  been  told.) 

3.  He  has  been  told.  They  have  been  told. 


Verbs  329 

Subjunctive  Mode 

Present  Perfect  Tense 
Singular                                                      Plural 
I     If  I .  If  we . 

2.  If   you .  If   you . 

df  thou  have  been  told.) 

3.  If  he  have  been  told.  If  they . 

Indicative  Mode 

Past  Perfect   Tense 

Singular  Plural 

1.  I  had  been  told.  We  had  been  told. 

2.  You  had  been  told.  You  had  been  told. 

(Thou  hadst  been   told.) 

3.  He  had  been  told.  The\-  had  been  told. 

Subjunctive  Mode 

Past  Perfect   Tense 
Singular  Plural 

1.  If  i .  If  we . 

2.  If  you .  If  you . 

(If  thou  had  been  told.) 

3.  If  he .  If  they . 

Indicative   Mode 

Future  Perfect  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

1.  I  shall  have  been  told.  We  shall  have  been  told. 

2.  You  will  have  been  told.         \'ou  will  have  been  told. 

(Thou  zvilt  hai'e  been  told.) 

3.  He  will  have  been  told.  They  will  have  been  told. 

Subjunctive  Mode 

Future  Perfect  Tense 
Singular                                                               Plural 
I.   If  I .  \i  we . 


If  you .  If  }0U- 

flf  thou  will  have  been  told. ) 
If  he .  If  ihcv- 


330  An  English  Grammar 

Imperative  Mode 

Be  told. 
Infinitives 
Present.  Perfect. 

To  be  told.  To  have  been  told. 

Participles 

Present.  •  Perfect. 

Being'  told.  Having  been  told. 

'■'298,  Synopsis.  Sometimes  when  we  wish 
to  indicate  the  different  forms  of  a  verb,  without 
giving  a  complete  conjugation,  we  give  all  the 
forms  in  a  single  person  and  number.  It  does  not 
matter  what  person  or  number  we  take.  The 
synopsis  of  a  verb  is  the  regular  arrangement  of 
all  its  forms  in  all  its  voices,  modes,  tenses,  in  a 
single  person  and  number. 

299.  Formes  of  Verbs.  Tn  the  conjugation  in 
Sections  2(;6,  and  297,  the  simple  form  of  the  verb 
is  used.  We  have,  however,  other  forms  of  the 
verb,  and  verbs  may  be  conjugated  with  these 
forms : 

1.  The  simple  form  of  the  verb  is  the  root 
form ;  as,  /  write. 

2.  The  progressive  form  of  the  verb  is  that 
form  which  expresses  the  attribute  or  the  relation 
in  a  state  of  continuance ;  as,  /  was  walking. 

3.  The  emphatic  form  of  the  verb  is  that  form 

*  Note:     Pass  over  Sections  298  and  Jgg  quickly. 


Verbs  331 

which  emphasizes  the  attribute  or  relation  expressed 
by  it;  as,  /  do  study. 

4.  The  interrogative  form  of  the  verb  is  that 
form  of  the  verb  which  is  used  in  asking  questions; 
as,  Did  you  write? 

5.  The  negative  form  of  the  verb  is  that  form 
of  the  verb  which  expresses  a  thought  relation  of 
disagreement ;  as,  I  am  not  going. 

You  will  notice  that  a  form  of  a  verb  is  fre- 
quently not  a  verb,  because  it  does  not  express  a 
thought  relation.  The  progressive  form  of  the  verb 
is  never  a  verb,  because  it  does  not  express  a  thought 
relation. 

The  participle  and  the  infinitive  are  forms  of 
the  verb  l)ut  they  are  not  verbs. 

300.  The  Verb  Phrase.  A  verb  is  a  w^ord. 
Frequently,  however,  that  which  is  expressed  by 
the  verb  is  expressed  by  a  group  of  words;  as, 
/  can  learn.  The  expression,  can  learn,  in  this  sen- 
tence expresses  the  thought  predicate  and  the 
thought  relation.  These  two  elements  of  the 
thought  are  often  expressed  by  the  verb;  as.  The 
sun  shines. 

Since  the  two  words,  caji  learn,  in  the  first  sen- 
tence, do  just  what  the  one  word,  shines,  does  in 
the  second  sentence,  wc  call  them  a  verb  phrase. 
The  verl)  phrase  is  ahvays  made  up  of  a  principal 
verb  and  one  or  more  auxiliary  verl)s:  as.  He  will 
write,  He  should  have  studied,  She  would  have 
suffered. 


332  An  English  Grammar 

In  parsing  the  verb  phrase,  it  is  better  to  breal< 
it  up  into  the  principal  part  and  its  auxiharies. 
Parse  the  principal  verb  as  you  would  any  other 
verb  and  then  s^ive  the  uses  of  the  auxiliaries. 

Work  in  Composition 

TJie  Story 
THE  'LUNGE 

Dick  and  I  traveled  in  a  fifteen-foot  wooden  canoe, 
with  food,  dufifel,  tent,  and  Dence,  the  black-and-white 
setter  dog.  As  a  consequence  we  were  pretty  well  down 
toward  the  water  line,  for  we  had  not  realized  that  a 
wooden  canoe  would  carry  so  little  weight  for  its  length 
in  comparison  with  a  birch-bark.  A  good  heav\-  sea  we 
could  ride — with  proper  management  and  a  little  bailing ; 
but  sloppy  waves  kept  us  busy. 

Deuce  did  not  like  it  at  all.  He  was  a  dog  old  in  the 
wisdom  of  experience.  It  had  taken  him  just  twenty  min- 
utes to  learn  all  about  canoes.  After  a  single  tentative  trial 
he  jumped  lightl>-  to  the  ver\-  center  of  his  place,  with  the 
lithe  caution  of  a  cat.  Then  if  the  water  happened  to  be 
smooth,  he  would  sit  gravely  on  his  haunches,  or  would 
rest  his  chin  on  the  gunwale  to  contemplate  the  passing 
landscape.  But  in  rough  weather  he  crouched  directly- 
over  the  keel,  his  nose  between  his  paws,  and  tried  not  to 
dodge  when  the  cold  water  dashed  in  on  him.  Deuce  was 
a  true  woodsman  in  that  respect.  Discomfort  he  always 
bore  with  equanimity,  and  he  must  often  have  been  verv 
cold  and  very  cramped. 

For  just  over  a  week  we  liad  been  traveling  in  open 
water,  and  the  elements  had  not  been  kind  to  us  at  all. 
We  had  crept  up  under  rock-cliff  points*;  had  weathered  the 
rips    of   white    water    to    shelter    on    the    other    side;    had 


Verbs  333 

struggled  across  open  spaces  where  each  wave  was  singly 
a  problem  to  fail  in  whose  solution  meant  instant  swamp- 
ing; had  bailed,  and  schemed,  and  figured,  and  carried, 
and  tried  again,  and  succeeded  with  about  two  cui)fuls  to 
spare,  until  we  as  well  as  Deuce  had  grown  a  little  tired  of 
it.     For  the  lust  of  travel  was  on  us. 

All  this  morning  we  had  been  bucking  a  strong  north 
wind.  Fortunately  the  shelter  of  a  string  of  islands  had 
given  us  smooth  water  enough,  but  the  heavy  gusts  some- 
times stopped  us  as  eiTfectually  as  though  we  had  butted 
solid  land.  Now  about  noon  we  came  to  the  last  island, 
and  looked  out  on  a  five-mile  stretch  of  tuiubling  seas. 
We  landed  the  canoe  and  mounted  a  high  rock. 

"  Can't  make  it  like  this,"  said  1.  "  I'll  take  the  outfit 
over  and  land  it.  and  come  back  for  you  and  the  dog.  Let's 
see  that  chart." 

We  hid  behind  a  rock  and  spread  out  the  map. 

"  Four  miles,"  measured  Dick.  "  It's  going  to  be  a 
terror." 

We  looked  at  each  other  vaguely,  suddenly  tired, 

"  We  can't  camp  here — at  this  time  of  day,"  ol^jectcd 
Dick,  to  our  unspoken  thoughts. 

And  then  the  map  gave  him  an  inspiration.  "  Here's 
a  little  river,"  ruminated  Dick,  "  that  goes  to  a  little  lake, 
and  then  there's  another  little  river  that  flows  from  the 
lake,  and  comes  out  about  ten  miles  above  here." 

"  It's  a  good  thirty  miles,"   1   objected. 

"What  of  it?"  asked  Dick,  calmly. 

So  the  fever-lust  of  travel  broke.  We  turned  to  the 
right  behind  the  last  island,  searched  out  the  reed-grown 
opening  to  the  stream,  and  paddled  serenely  and  philo- 
sophically against  the  current.  Deuce  sat  up  and  yawned 
with  a  mighty  satisfaction. 

We  had  been  bending  our  heads  to  the  demon  of  wind  ; 
our  ears  had  been  filled  wi<;h  his  shoutings,  our  eyes  blinded 


334       '  An  English  Graimnar 

with  tears,  our  lirealli  caught  away  from  us,  our  muscles 
strung  to  the  fiercest  endeavor.  Suddenly  we  found  our- 
selves between  the  ranks  of  tall  forest  trees,  bathed  in  a 
warm  sunliohl,  ojiding  like  a  feather  from  one  grassy  bend 
to  another  of  llie  laziest  little  stream  that  ever  hesitated 
as  to  which  wax*  the  grasses  of  its  bed  should  float.  As 
for  the  wind,  it  was  lost  somewhere  away  up  high,  where 
we  could  hear  it  niuttering  to  itself  about  something. 

The  woods  leaned  over  the  fringe  of  bushes  cool  and 
green  and  silent.  Occasional!}-  ihrough  tiny  openings  we 
caught  instant  impressions  of  straight  column-trunks  and 
transparent  shadows.  Miniature  grass  marshes  jutted  out 
from  bends  of  the  little  river.  We  idled  along  as  with  a 
homelv  rustic  companion,  through  the  aloofness  of  patrician 
multitudes. 

Every  bend  offered  us  chaining  surprises.  Sometimes 
a  muskrat  swam  hastily  in  a  pointed  furrow  of  ripple ; 
vanishing  wings,  barely  sensed  in  the  flash,  left  us  staring ; 
stealthv  withdrawals  of  creatures,  whose  presence  we  real- 
ized only  in  the  fact  of  those  withdrawals,  snared  our  eager 
interest ;  porcupines  rattled  and  rustled  importantly  and 
regally  from  the  water's  edge  to  the  woods ;  herons,  ravens, 
an  occasional  duck,  croaked  away  at  our  approach  :  thrice 
we  surprised  eagles,  once  a  tassel-eared  Canada  lynx.  Or, 
if  all  else  lacked,  we  still  experienced  the  little  thrill  of 
pleased  novelty  over  the  disclosure  of  a  group  of  silvery 
birches  on  a  knoll ;  a  magnificent  white  pine  towering  over 
the  beech  and  ma]:>le  forest ;  the  unexpected  aisle  of  a  long, 
straight  stretch  of  the  little  river. 

Deuce  approved  thoroughly.  He  stretched  himself, 
yawned  and  shook  off  the  water,  and  glanced  at  me  open- 
mouthed  with  doggy  good-nature,  and  set  himself  to  ac- 
(|uiring  a  conscientious  olfactory  knowledge  of  both  banks 
of  the  river.  I  do  not  doubt  he  knew  a  great  deal  more 
about  it  than  we  did.     Porcupines  aroused  his  especial  en- 


Verbs  335 

thusiasni.  Incidental!)',  t\\o  clays  later  he  returned  to  camp 
after  an  expedition  of  his  own.  bristling-  as  to  the  face 
with  that  animal's  barbed  weapons.  Thenceforward  his 
interest  waned. 

We  ascended  the  charming  little  river  two  or  three 
miles.  At  a  sharp  bend  to  the  east  a  huge  sheet  of  rock 
sloped  from  a  round  grass  knoll  sparsely  planted  with 
birches  directly  down  into  a  pool.  Two  or  three  tree-trunks 
jammed  directly  opposite  had  formed  a  sort  of  half  dam 
imder  which  the  water  lay  dark.  A  tiny  grass  meadow 
forty  feet  in  diameter  narrowed  the  stream  to  half  its 
width. 

We  landed.  Dick  seated  himself  on  the  shelving  rock. 
I  put  my  fish-rod  together.     Deuce  disappeared. 

Deuce  always  disappeared  whenever  w^e  landed.  With 
nose  down,  hind-quarters  well  tucked  under  him,  ears  fly- 
ing, he  quartered  the  forest  at  high  speed,  investigating 
every  nook  and  cranny  of  it  for  the  radius  of  a  (|uartcr  of 
a  mile.  When  he  had  quite  satisfied  himself  that  we  were 
safe  for  the  moment,  he  would  return  to  the  fire,  where  he 
would  lie,  six  inches  of  pink  tongue  vibrating  with  breath- 
lessness,  beautiful  in  the  consciousness  of  virtue.  Dick 
generally  sat  on  a  rock  and  thought.     I  generally  fished. 

After  a  time  Deuce  returned.  I  gave  up  flies,  spoons, 
phantom  minnows,  artificial  frogs,  and  cra\fish.  As  Dick 
continued  to  sit  on  the  rock  and  think,  we  both  joined 
him.  The  sun  was  very  warm  and  grateful,  and  I  am  sure 
we  both  acquired  an  added  respect  for  Dick's  judgment. 

Just  when  it  happened  neither  of  us  was  afterwards 
able  to  decide.  Perhaps  Deuce  knew.  But  suddenly,  as 
often  a  figure  appears  in  a  cinematograph,  the  diminutive 
meadow  thirty  feet  away  contained  two  deer.  They  stood 
knee-deep  in  the  grass,  wagging  their  little  tails  in  im- 
patience of  the  flies. 

"Look  'a  there!"  stammered  Dick  aloud. 


336  All  English  Grammar 

Deuce  sat  up  on  his  haunches. 

I  started  for  my  camera. 

Tl'.e  deer  cHd  not  seem  to  he  in  the  sHghtest  degree 
alarmed.  They  pointed  four  big  ears  in  our  direction,  ate 
a  few  leisurely  mouthfuls  of  grass,  sauntered  to  the  stream 
for  a  drink  of  water,  wagged  their  little  tails  some  more 
and  quietly  faded  out  into  the  cool  shadows  of  the  forest. 

An  hour  later  we  ran  out  into  reedsj  and  so  to  the  lake. 
It  was  a  pretty  lake,  forest-girt.  Across  the  distance  we 
made  out  a  moving  object  which  shortly  resolved  itself  into 
a  birch  canoe.  The  canoe  proved  to  contain  an  Indian,  an 
Indian  boy  of  about  ten  years,  a  black  dog.  and  a  bundle. 
When  within  a  few  rods  of  each  other  we  ceased  paddling 
and  drifted  by  with  the  momentum.  The  Indian  was  a 
fine-looking  man  about  forty,  his  hair  bound  with  a  red 
fillet,  his  feet  incased  in  silk-worked  moccasins,  but  other- 
wise dressed  in  white  men's  garments.  He  smoked  a  short 
pipe,  and  contemplated  us  gravely. 

"  Bo'  jou',  bo'  jou',"  we  called  in  the  usual  double- 
barreled   North  Country  salutation. 

"  Bo'  jou',  bo'  jou'."  he  replied. 

"  Kee-gons  ?  "  we  inquired  as  to  the  fishing  in  the  lake. 

"  Ah-hah,"  he  assented. 

We  drifted  by  each  other  without  further  speech.  When 
the  decent  distance  of  etiquette  separated  us,  we  resumed 
our  paddles. 

I  produced  a  young  cable  terminated  by  a  tremendous 
spoon  and  solid  brass  snell  as  thick  as  a  telegraph  wire. 
We  had  laid  in  this  formidable  implement  in  hopes  of  a 
big  muscallunge.  It  had  been  trailed  for  days  at  a  time. 
We  had  become  used  to  its  vibration,  which  actually  seemed 
to  communicate  itself  to  every  fibre  of  the  light  canoe. 
Every  once  in  a  while  we  would  stop  with  a  jerk  that 
would  nearly  snap  our  heads  ofif.  Then  we  would  know 
we  had  hooked  the  American  continent.     We  had  become 


P'erbs  337 

used  to  that  also.  It  generally  happened  when  we  at- 
tempted a  little  burst  of  speed.  So  when  the  canoe  brought 
up  so  violently  that  all  our  tinware  rolled  on  Deuce,  Dick 
was  merely  disgusted. 

"  There  she  goes  again,"  he  grumbled.  "  You've 
liooked  Canada." 

Canada  held  quiescent  for  about  three  seconds.  Then 
it  started  due  south. 

"Suffering  serpents!"  shrieked   Dick. 

"  Paddle  !  "  yelled  I. 

It  was  most  interesting.  All  1  had  to  do  was  to  hang 
on  and  try  to  stay  in  the  boat.  Dick  paddled  and  fumed 
and  splashed  water  and  got  more  excited.  Canada  dragged 
us  bodily  backward. 

Then  Canada  changed  his  mind  and  started  in  our 
direction.  I  was  plenty  busy  taking  in  slack,  so  I  did  not 
notice  Dick.  Dick  was  absolutely  demented.  His  mind 
automatically  reacted  in  the  direction  of  paddling.  He 
paddled,  blindly,  frantically.  Canada  came  surging  in,  his 
mouth  open,  his  wicked  eyes  flaming,  a  tremendous  indis- 
tinct body  lashing  foam.  Dick  glanced  over  his  shoulder, 
and  let  out  a  frantic  howl. 

"  You've  got  a  sea  serpent !  "  he  shrieked. 

I  turned  to  fumble  for  the  pistol.  We  were  heading 
directly  for  a  log  stranded  on  shore,  and  about  ten  feet 
from  us. 

"  Dick !  "  I  yelled  in  warning. 

He  thrust  his  paddle  out  forward  just  in  time.  The 
stout  maple  bent  and  cracked.  The  canoe  hit  with  a  bump 
that  threw  us  forward.  I  returned  to  the  young  cable.  It 
came  in  limp  and  slack. 

We  looked  at  each  other  sadly. 

"  No  use,"  sighed  Dick  at  last.  "  They've  never  in- 
vented the  words  and  we'd  upset  if  we  kicked  the  dog." 

I  had  the  end  of  the  line  in  my  hands. 


338  An  English  Grammar 

"  Look  here!  "  T  cried.  That  thick  l)rass  wire  liad  been 
as  cleanly  bitten  through  as  though  it  had  been  cut  with 
clippers.     "  He  must  have  caught  sight  of  you,"  said  I. 

Dick  lifted  up  his  voice  in  lamentation.  "  You  had 
four  feet  of  him  out  of  water,"  he  wailed,  "  and  there  was 
a  lot  more." 

"  Tf  you  had  kept  cool,"  said  I,  severely.  "  we  shouldn't 
have  lost  him.  You  don't  want  to  get  rattled  in  an  emer- 
gency.    There's  no  sense  in  it." 

"  What  were  you  going  to  do  with  that?  "  asked  Dick, 
pointing  to  where  I  had  laid  the  pistol. 

"  I  was  going  to  shoot  him  in  the  head."  I  replied,  with 
dignitv.     "  It's  the  best  way  to  land  them." 

Dick  laughed  disagreeably.  I  looked  down.  At  my 
side  lay  our  largest  iron  spoon. 

We  skirted  the  left-hand  side  of  the  lake  in  silence. 
Far  out  from  shore  the  water  was  ruffled  where  the  wind 
swept  down,  but  with  us  it  was  as  still  and  calm  as  the 
forest  trees  that  looked  over  into  it.  After  a  time  we 
turned  short  to  the  left,  through  a  very  narrow  passage  be- 
tween two  marshy  shores,  and  so,  after  a  sharp  bend  of  a 
few  hundred  feet,  came  into  the  other  river. 

This  was  a  wide  stream,  smoothly  hurrying,  without 
rapids  or  tumult.  The  forest  had  drawn  to  either  side  to 
let  us  pass.  Here  were  the  wilder  reaches  after  the  inti- 
macies of  the  little  river.  Across  stretches  of  marsh  we 
could  see  an  occasional  great  blue  heron  standing  mid-leg 
deep.  Long  strings  of  ducks  struggled  quacking  from  in- 
visible pools.  The  faint  marsh  odors  saluted  our  nostrils 
from  a  point  where  the  lily-pads  flashed  broadly,  ruffling 
in  the  wind.  We  dropped  out  the  smaller  spoon  and  mas- 
terfully landed  a  five-pound  pickerel.  Even  Deuce 
brightened.  He  cared  nothing  for  raw  fish,  but  he  knew 
their  possibilities.  Towards  evening  we  entered  the  hilly 
country,  and  so  at  the  last  turned  to  the  left  into  a  sand 


Verbs  339 

cove  where  grew  maples  and  liirclies  in  l)eaiitiful  park 
order  under  a  hill.  There  we  ])itched  camp,  and,  as  the 
flies  lacked,  huilt  a  friendship-fire  ahout  which  to  fore- 
gather when  the  day  was  done. 

Dick  still  vocally  regretted  the  muscallunge  as  the 
largest  fish  since  Jonah,  so  L  told  him  of  my  big  bear. 

One  day,  late  in  the  summer,  I  was  engaged  in  pack- 
ing some  supplies  along  an  old  fur  trail  north  of  Lake 
Superior.  I  had  accomplished  one  pack-load,  and  with 
empty  straps  was  returning  to  the  cache  for  another.  The 
trail  at  one  point  emerged  into  and  crossed  an  open  park 
some  hundreds  of  feet  in  diameter,  in  wliich  the  grass 
grew  to  the  height  of  ihe  knee.  When  1  was  about  half 
way  across  a  black  bear  arose  to  his  hind  legs  not  ten  feet 
from  me,  and  remarked,  14^ oof!  in  a  loud  tone  of  voice. 
Xow,  if  a  man  were  to  say  ■li'oof!  to  you  unexpectedly, 
even  in  the  formality  of  an  Italian  garden  or  the  accus- 
tomedness  of  a  city  street,  you  would.be  somewhat  startled. 
So  I  went  to  camp.  There  I  told  them  about  the  bear.  I 
tried  to  be  conservative  in  my  description,  because  I  did 
not  wish  to  be  accused  of  exaggeration.  My  impression 
of  the  animal  was  that  he  and  a  spruce-tree  that  grew 
near  enough  for  ready  comparison  were  approximately  of 
the  same  stature.  We  returned  to  the  grass  park.  After 
some  difficulty  we  found  a  clear  footprint.  It  was  a  little 
larger  than  that  made  by  a  good-sized  coon. 

"  So,  you  see,"  I  admonished,  didactically,  "  that 
'lunge  probably  was  not  so  large  as  you  thought." 

"  It  may  have  been  a  Chinese  bear,"  said  Dick,  dream- 
ily— "  a  Chinese  lady  bear,  of  high  degree." 

I  gave  him  up.  — Stewart  Edward  White. 

I. 

Read  "  77/ r  ' ljiui!:c." 
Outline  and  i^'rifc  a  rci'iciv. 


340  An  English  Grammar 

Criticise  your  reviezv  in  as  many  ivays  as  pos- 
sible. Criticise  the  paragraphs,  the  sentences  and 
the  choice  of  ivords. 

II. 

What  to  your  mind,  is  the  most  interesting  in- 
cident of  the  story  of  ''The  ' Lunge" F  What  scene 
is  the  most  picturesque t 

Write  a  paper  describing  your  favorite  incideut 
or  one  describing  your  favorite  scene. 

Read  your  paper  and  criticise  it  in  as  many  zvays 
as  possible. 

III. 

What  things  are  told  of  Deuce  in  the  story  of 
''The  'Lnn^c"  which  make  him  seem  like  a  real 
dog? 

One  of  the  greatest  story  writers  once  said, 
"Talent  consists  in  looking  at  what  you  are  going 
to  wTite  of  long  enough  and  attentively  enough  to 
discover  in  it  something  that  has  not  been  seen  and 
reported  by  some  one  else." 

Observe  closely  the  zvays  of  some  dog  of  your 
acquaintance.    Write  your  observations. 

IV. 
Imagine  yourself  enjoying  some  of  the  experi- 
ences reported  in  the  story  of  "The  'Lunge." 
Write  a  letter  home,  telling  of  your  imaginary  ex- 
periences. Keep  it  dignified  and  give  enough  detail 
in  describing  the  camp  and  the  manner  of  life  in  it 
so  that  your  experiences  zvill  have  an  air  of  reality 
about  them. 


Chapter  XVIII 

THE   ADVERB 

301.  The  Adverb  Defined.  An  adverb  is  an 
attributive  word  which  expresses  an  attribute  of 
an  attribute  or  an  attribute  of  an  idea  of  rela- 
tion; as,  He  came  here.     He  is  probably  zvell. 

Little  need  be  said  of  the  adverb  in  addition  to 
what  has  been  given  under  the  classes  of  words, 
modifiers,  and  connectives  in  the  complex  sentence. 

302.  Classes  of  Adverbs  on  Basis  of  the  Kind 
of  Idea  to  which  the  Attribute  Expressed  by  it 
Belongs.  Notice  the  adverbs  in  the  following 
sentences: 

She  sang  sweetly. 

He  is  not  well. 

You  will  notice  that  the  attribute  expressed  by 
the  adverb,  sweetly,  belongs  to  the  attribute  ex- 
pressed by  the  word,  sang.  We  call  this  kind  of 
an  adverb  a  regular  adverb. 

In  the  second  sentence  you  will  notice  that  the 
attribute  expressed  by  the  adverb,  not,  belongs  to 
the  idea  of  relation  expressed  by  the  word,  is.  We 
call  this  kind  of  adverb  a  modal  adverb. 

303.  Regular  Adverb  Defined.    A  regular  ad- 

[341] 


342  An  English  Grcnnmar 

verb  is  an  adverb  which  expresses  an  attribute  of 
an  attribute;    as,  Walter  rides  rapidly. 

304.  Modal  Adverb  Defined.  A  modal  ad- 
verb is  an  adverb  which  expresses  an  attribute 
of  an  idea  of  relation ;  You  are  perhaps  somewhat 
alike.     Henry  is  almost  oz'er  the  ocean. 

305.  Classes  of  Adverbs  on  Basis  of  Use.   You 

will  notice  the  adverbs  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  The  man  runs  rapidly. 

2.  The  story  is  probably  true. 

3.  This  is  the  house  where  Longfellow  lived. 

4.  Where  are  you  going? 

The  adverb,  rapidly,  in  the  first  sentence,  merely 
expresses  an  attribute  of  an  attribute.  The  adverb, 
probably,  in  the  second  sentence  merely  expresses 
an  attribute  of  the  idea  of  relation.  An  adverb 
that  does  this  we  call  a  pure  adverb.  The  adverb, 
zvhere,  in  the  third  sentence  in  addition  to  express- 
ing an  attribute  of  an  attribute  expresses  a  relation 
between  thoughts  of  unequal  rank.  We  call  an  ad- 
verb of  this  kind  a  conjunctive  adverb.  For  the 
conjunctive  adverb,  its  classes,  uses,  and  definitions, 
see  the  complex  sentence.  Sections  114,  115,  117 
and  1 19-120. 

The  adverb,  where,  in  the  fourth  sentence,  in 
addition  to  expressing  an  attribute  of  an  attribute, 
shows  that  this  attribute  is  unknown  and  sought. 
We  call  such  an  adverb  an  interrogati\e  adverb. 

306.  Pure  Adverb  Defined.    A  pure  adverb  is 


The  Adverb  343 

an  adverb  which  merely  expresses  an  attribute  of 
an  attribute  or  an  attribute  of  an  idea  of  relation ; 

as,  The  stream  flows  rapidly.     My  brother  is  surely 
present. 

307.  Interrogative  Adverb  Defined.  An  in- 
terrogative adverb  is  an  adverb  which  expresses 
an  attribute  of  an  attribute  or  an  attribute  of  an 
idea  of  relation  as  unknown  and  sought;  as, 
When  did  your  father  leave? 

Exercise  106 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out  the  adverbs, 
classify  them  on  basis  of  the  kind  of  idea  to  which 
the  attribute  expressed  by  them  belongs,  and  on  the 
basis  of  use.  Compare  them  zvhcn  they  can  be 
compared,  give  the  exact  use  of  each  iu  the  sen- 
tencc,  and  tell  zvliat  adverbial  idea  is  expressed  by 
each.  Reviezv  the  adverbial  ideas  which  may  be 
expressed  by  the  adi'crbial  modifier,  Section  5^.  and 
see  if  all  these  adverbial  ideas  may  be  ca' pressed  by 
the  adverb: 

1.  The  mountain  streams  flow  rapidly. 

2.  The  sentence  is  undoubtedly  a  just  one. 

3.  The  girl  is  exceedingly  lonesome. 

4.  The  vessel  was  wrecked  when  it  was  almost  over 
the  ocean. 

5.  We   shall   meet  there. 

6.  The  method  is  slow  at  first,  but  will  rapidly  grow- 
easier. 

7.  Occasionally  written  exercises  should  be  substituted 


34:4:  An  English  Grammar 

for  the  oral,  when  the  teacher  wishes  to  test  the  progress 
of  the  class. 

8.  I  shall  be  glad  to  see  you  whenever  you  may  stop. 

9.  I  saw  the  place  where  the  World's  Fair  buildings 
are  to  stand. 

10.  The  young  man  was  greatly  respected  in  the  town 
where  he  was  born. 

11.  No  spot  on  earth,  do  I  love  more  sincerely, 
Than  old  Virginia,  the  place  where  I  was  born. 

12.  He  speaks  most  sincerely  when  in  private  conversa- 
tion. 

13.  I  sincerely  hope  for  your  success. 

14.  The  prisoner  begged  hard  for  mercy. 

15.  The  boy  :<tudies  harder  than  his  sister. 

16.  It  rained  hardest  just  after  we  started. 

17.  Now  will  we  deal  worse  with  thee  than  with  them. 

18.  He  is  much  taller  than  I. 

19.  He  is  more  polite  than  his  brother. 

20.  He  is  the  most  industrious  boy  in  school. 

21.  The  soul  lives  on  forever. 

22.  We  shall  no  doubt  meet  often  hereafter. 

23.  I  cannot  believe  otherwise. 

24.  The  lady  was  greatly  distressed  by  the  news. 
-25.  When  shall  we  three  meet  again? 

26.  Where  do  the  people  congregate? 

27.  I  know  why  you  have  come. 

28.  I  see  how  you  made  the  mistake. 

29.  I  can  tell  why  the  sun  appears  to  rise  and  set. 

30.  This  she  said  with  so  much  decision  that  she  evi- 
dently considered  it  a  condensed  but  complete  answer. 
"  Imitation  ?  "  repeated  August,  timidly,  not  understanding. 

— De  La  Rame. 


Chapter  XIX 

THE  INFINITIVE 

308.  The  Infinitive  Defined.  In  the  sentence. 
To  live  is  not  simply  to  exist,  the  expressions,  to 
live  and  to  exist,  are  forms  of  the  verb,  but  they 
do  not  express  thought  relations.  The  words,  live 
and  exist,  are  the  root  forms  of  the  verbs.  This 
form  of  the  verb,  which  is  usually  preceded  by  the 
sign,  to,  we  call  the  infinitive. 

The  infinitive  is  the  root  form  of  the  verb 
which  does  not  express  a  thought  relation;  as, 
To  err  is  human. 

The  sign,  to,  which  usually  precedes  this  form  of  the 
verb,  was  not  originally  a  part  of  the  infinitive.  In  the 
Anglo-Saxon  and  old  English  it  was  not  used  with  the  in- 
finitive except  when  it  was  in  the  dative  case,  where  it  had 
a  real  prepositional  value.  But  when  the  case  endings  were 
dropped  so  that  the  dative  case  could  not  be  known  by  its 
ending,  the  preposition,  to,  caused  confusion  because  it  was 
indiscriminately  used  with  all  cases  and  thus  lost  its  prepo- 
sitional value  and  became  a  mere  sign. 

In  a  very  few  instances  the  sign,  to,  seems  to  retain  its 
prepositional  use ;  as,  This  af^ple  is  not  fit  to  eat,  is  equal  to 
This  apple  is  not  tit  for  eating.  There  is  a  time  to  zvork,  is 
equal  to  There  is  a  time  for  zvorking. 

Even  in  such  cases,  however,  the  prepositional  force  is 
practically  lost,  and  the  sign  is  no7V  considered  and  described 
as  a  part  of  the  infinitive. 

r345l 


346  An  English  Grammar 

It  is  evident  that  the  sign,  to.  is  not  an  essential  part  of 
the  infinitive  because  it  is  frequently  omitted : 

1.  After  a  few  verbs,  such  as,  dare,  help,  need,  please, 
go;  as.  He  dared  not  leave  the  place.    Go  find  your  master. 

2.  In  certain  pecuHar  elliptical  constructions ;  as,  You 
had  better  go  home.  He  icould  rather  die  than  do  it. 
We  had  as  zvell  yield  at  once  as  struggle. 

3.  After  the  word,  but,  following  a  negative ;  as  She 
cannot  but  grieve  for  him.     They  do  naught  but  idle  about. 

4.  After  a  verb  which  takes  a  direct  objective  modifier, 
the  principal  part  of  which  is  modified  by  an  infinitive ;  as, 
/  sazv  him  do  it.     We  heard  her  sing. 

5.  Sometimes  when  the  infinitive  is  used  as  the  predicate- 
like element  of  a  clausal  phrase ;  as,  Let  not  ambition  mock 
then-  useful  toil. 

Note:  The  infinitive  may  be  defined  on  the  basis  of  its  use 
as  Whitney  and  other  good  grammarians  do.  The  definition  on  this 
basis  is  perhaps  more  in  accordance  with  the  origin  of  the  language 
but  it  makes  the  infinitive  much  more  difficult  and  it  is  thought  that 
the  gain  is  not  sufficient  to  outweigh  the  disadvantages.  If  we 
define  the  infinitive  on  basis  of  use,  we  have  infinitives  in  ing,  par- 
ticiples in  ing,  and  abstract  nouns  in  ing.  This  is  confusing,  especial- 
ly to  the  beginner.  On  the  basis  of  form  or  origin  as  we  have 
defined  it,  all  infinitives  are  root  forms  of  the  verb  and  all  de- 
rived forms  of  the  verb  are  participles.  This  is  a  much  easier  dis- 
tinction for  the  beginner  to  make,  and  it  matters  not  what  we  call  a 
word  so  long  as  we  see  its  exact  use  in  expressing  the  thought. 

Exercise  107 

Make  sentences  of  your  ozvn  containing  these 
infimtives  and  intinitiz'e  phrases:  To  stand,  to  sur- 
prise, to  go,  to  pass,  to  put,  to  tell,  to  speak,  to  do, 
to  be  omitted,  to  zvonder,  to  notice,  to  he  suited,  to 
have  been  taken,  to  be  expected,  to  fit,  to  have  been 
fitted,  to  hai'e  stolen,  to  attain,  to  be  deplored,  to 
be  sent,  to  luv'i'c  been  eaten. 


The  Infinitive  347 

309.  Substantive  Uses  of  the  Infinitive,  i. 
In  the  sentence,  To  study  is  tiresome,  the  infinitive, 
to  study,  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  sentence.  An 
infinitive  may  be  used  as  the  subject  of  the  sen- 
tence; as.  To  run  swiftly  is  a  good  exercise. 

2.  In  the  sentence,  To  see  is  to  believe,  the  in- 
finitive, to  believe,  is  used  as  the  predicate  of  the 
sentence.  An  infinitive  may  be  used  as  the  predi- 
cate of  the  sentence;  as.  To  lie  is  to  break  the  law. 

3.  In  the  sentence.  My  friend  is  about  to  depart, 
the  infinitive,  to  depart,  is  used  as  the  principal  part 
of  the  prepositional  phrase,  about  to  depart.  The 
infinitive  may  be  used  as  the  principal  part  of 
a  prepositional  phrase;  as.  The  vessel  is  about  to 
sink. 

4.  In  the  sentence,  /  zvaiit  to  go,  the  infinitive, 
to  go,  is  used  as  the  direct  objective  modifier  of  the 
verb,  want.  The  infinitive  may  be  used  as  the 
direct  objective  modifier;  as.  He  zvisJies  to  leave 
soon. 

5.  In  the  sentence,  It  is  easy  to  talk,  the  infini- 
tive, to  talk,  is  used  as  an  appositive  modifier  of  the 
pronoun,  it.  An  infinitive  may  be  used  as  an 
appositive  modifier ;  as,  He  has  formed  the  heroic 
resolution  to  defend  the  fozver  against  the  enemy. 
It  is  hard  to  solve  the  problems. 

6.  In  the  sentence.  The  boy  is  certain  to  succeed, 
the  infinitive,  to  succeed,  is  the  indirect  objective 
modifier  of  the  adjective,  certain.    An  infinitive  may 


348  An  English  Grammar 

be  used  as  indirect  objective  modifier;  as,  The  girl 
is  sure  to  win. 

7.  In  the  sentence,  To  tell  the  tntth,  I  do  not 
care,  the  infinitive,  to  tell,  is  used  independently.  An 
infinitive  may  be  used  independently;  as.  To  speak 
figuratively,  the  lion  is  the  king  of  beasts. 

Note  i  :  The  independent  use  of  the  infinitive  is  very  much  like 
the  adverbial  use  and  may  always  be  resolved  into  one.  In  the 
sentence,  The  lion,  to  speak  figuratively,  is  the  king  of  beasts,  the 
infinitive  phrase,  to  speak  figuratively,  is  equivalent  to  the  clause, 
if  we  speak  figuratively,  which  is  an  adverbial  clause,  expressing 
the  adverbial  idea  of  condition.  The  infinitive  used  independently 
can  always  be  changed  into  an  adverbial  clause  expressing  some 
adverbial  idea. 

2.  The  infinitive  used  as  an  appositive  modifier,  is  rare  except 
in  sentences  beginning  with  the  pronoun,  it;  as.  It  takes  two  to 
make  a  bargain. 

3.  Whitney  says  that  the  infinitive  may  be  used  as  an  adverbial 
objective  modifier,  but  he  gives  it  this  use  because  he  defines  the 
infinitive  as  the  form  of  the  verb  which  is  used  substantively.  The 
infinitive  often  expresses  an  adverbial  idea;  as  He  failed  to  appear. 

Of  course  if  we  say  that  it  is  substantive,  it_  would  be  an  ad- 
verbial objective  modifier.  As  we  have  defined  it  on  the  basis  of 
origin  or  form,  however,  it  may  have  an  attributive  use  as  well  as 
a  substantive  use.  When  it  expresses  an  adverbial  idea,_  it  has  an 
attributive  use.  Where  Whitney,  according  to  his  definition,  calls 
the  infinitive  an  adverbial  objective  modifier,  we,  according  to  our 
definition,  will  call  it  an  adverbial  modifier. 

310.  Attributive  Uses  of   Infinitives,      i.    In 

the  sentence,  Time  to  come  is  called  future  time,  the 
infinitive,  to  come,  is  used  as  an  adjective  modifier 
of  the  word,  time.  An  infinitive  may  be  used  as  an 
adjective  modifier; as,  The  boy  to  be  chosen  must 
be  tall. 

2.  In  the  sentence,  The  children  are  to  sing,  the 
infinitive,  to  sing,  is  used  as  a  predicate  adjective. 


The  InHnitive  349 

An  infinitive  ma}^  be  used  as  a  predicate  adjective; 
as,  We  are  to  have  a  jolly  time. 

3.  In  the  sentence,  IVe  live  to  do  our  duty,  the 
infinitive,  to  do,  is  used  as  the  adverbial  modifier  of 
the  verb,  li'i'e,  expressing  the  adverbial  idea  of  pur- 
pose ;  an  infinitive  may  be  used  as  an  adverbial  modi- 
fier; as,  Tliey  came  to  assist  ^is. 

4.  In  the  sentence,  TJiey  zvish  him  to  teach,  the 
infinitive,  to  teach,  is  used  as  the  predicate-like  ele- 
ment of  the  clausal  phrase,  him  to  teach.  An  infini- 
tive may  be  used  as  the  predicate-like  element  of 
a  clausal  phrase;  as.  We  zvisli  Charles  to  go  to 
school. 

Note:  A  clausal  phrase  is  a  group  of  words  having  a  subject- 
like element,  a  predicate-like  element,  and  a  copula-like  element, 
which  does  not  express  a  thought  relation.  It  looks  like  a  clause 
but  is  merely  a  phrase  because  it  does  not  express  a  thought  rela- 
tion. It  can  always  be  expanded  into  a  clause  w'ithout  changing 
the  meaning  of  the  original  sentence  in  which  it  occurs.  This  is 
the  final  test  of  the  clausal  phrase.  In  the  sentence,  JVe  wished 
William  to  be  a  teacher,  the  expression,  William  to  be  a  teacher, 
is  a  clausal  phrase  because  it  has  a  subject-like  element,  the  word, 
William;  a  predicate-like  element,  the  word,  teacher;  and  a  copula- 
like element,  the  infinitive,  to  be.  It  may  be  expanded  into  the 
clause,  that  IVilliam  be  a  teacher  withoiU  changing  the  meaning  of 
the  original  sentence  in  which  it  occurs. 

This  construction  is  often  confused  with  the  construction  in  the 
sentence.  They  made  Victoria  queen. 

The  expression,  Victoria  queen,  is  not  a  clausal  phrase  with  the 
copula-like  element,  to  be,  understood.  It  cannot  be  expanded  into 
a  clause  without  changing  the  meaning  of  the  original  sentence. 
This  expression,  Victoria  queen,  is  a  factitive  direct  objective  modi- 
fier of  the  verb,  made.  The  word,  Victoria,  is  the  principal  part 
of  the  factitive  direct  objective  modifier  and  it  is  modified  by  the 
word,  queen,  an  appositive  modifier,  which  at  the  same  time  sup- 
plements the  meaning  of  the  verb,  made.  We  may  turn  the  word, 
queen,  around  and  take  it  into  the  verb  expressing  the  thought, 
thus :  They  crowned  Victoria.  The  word,  crozuned,  in  the  sentence 
expresses   what  is  expressed  in  the   other  sentence,  by  the  words, 


350  An  English  Grammar 

made  and  queen.  There  is  never  anything  like  this  in  the  clausal 
phrase.  Other  examples  of  the  factitive  objective  modifier  are  the 
following:  They  made  the  stick  straight,  is  equal  to  They  straight- 
ened tlie  stick. 

The  Uglitiiiiig  struck  the  man  dead,  is  equal  to  The  lightning 
killed  the  man. 

There  is  still  another  construction  which  looks  very  much  like 
both  these  yet  is  different  from  them.  In  the  sentence,  They  saw 
him  fall,  the  expression,  him  fall,  is  not  a  clausal  phrase  because  it 
cannot  be  changed  into  a  clause  expressing  the  same  thought  as  the 
original  sentence.  It  is  not  a  factitive  direct  objective  modifier  be- 
cause the  seeing  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  falling.  The  infinitive, 
fall,  does  not  supplement  the  meaning  of  the  verb,  sazv.  This  ex- 
pression is  simply  a  direct  objective  modifier  of  the  verb,  sazv.  The 
principal  part  of  the  direct  objective  modifier  is  the  word,  him,  and 
it  is  modified  by  the  infinitive,  fall,  an  adjective  modifier.  Other 
examples  of  this  same  construction  are  found  in  the  following  sen- 
tences :     ]Vc  heard  liim  sing.     We  felt  the  bridge  give. 

311.  Relational  Uses  of  the  Infinitive.     We 

see  from  the  discussion  of  the  clausal  phrase  that 
the  infinitive  may  have  a  relational  use.  It  may  be 
used  as  a  copula-like  element  of  a  clausal  phrase. 
In  the  sentence,  /  know  him  to  he  a  man,  the  infini- 
tive, to  he,  is  used  as  the  copula-like  element  of  the 
clausal  phrase,  him  to  he  a  man. 

2.  In  the  sentence,  The  hoy  grew  to  be  useful, 
we  seem  to  have  two  predicates.  The  words,  grew 
and  useful,  both  express  attributes  which  are 
thought  of  in  relation  to  the  thought  subject,  the 
hoy.  The  sentence  is  almost  equivalent  to  the  com- 
pound sentence,  llie  hoy  grezv  and  lie  was  useful. 

In  this  case,  the  word,  useful,  becomes  a  real 
predicate,  and  the  word,  ivas,  which  takes  the  place 
of  the  infinitive,  to  he,  is  the  real  copula.  We  call 
the  expression,  grew  to  be  useful,  a  double  predi- 
cate.    The  word,  grew,  expresses  a  thought  rela- 


The  Infinitive  351 

tion  and  may  be  expanded  into  the  words  zvas  grow- 
ing. The  infinitive,  to  be,  is  i  copula-Hke  element 
for  the  second  part  of  the  double  predicate,  useful, 
because  it  does  not  express  a  thought  relation  but 
stands  in  the  place  of  a  word  that  would  express 
a  thought  relation,  if  the  sentence  were  expanded 
into  a  compound  sentence.  An  infinitive  may  be 
used  as  a  copula-like  element  with  the  second  part 
of  a  double  predicate ;  as.  TJie  people  grezv  to  be 
barbarous. 

3.  Tn  the  sentence.  The  cJiildren  are  to  be  happy, 
the  infinitive,  to  be,  seems  to  have  almost  the  force 
of  the  future  tense  auxiliary,  zvill.  The  sentence 
means  about  the  same  as,  Tlie  children  will  be  happy. 
An  infinitive  ma}^  be  "used  as  a  future  tense 
auxiliary;  as,  Man  never  is  but  alzvays  to  be  blessed. 

Exercise  108 

In  the  follozving  sentences  point  out  each  infini- 
tive, tell  zvhat  form  it  has,  and  give  its  exact  use 
in  the  sentence: 

1.  Their  business  is  to  depreciate  human  nature,  and 
to  consider  it  under  its  worst  appearances. 

2.  I  remained  a  long  time  considering  the  number  of 
things  connected  with  this  marvelous  bridge,  and  to  see 
people  falling  just  at  the  time  when  they  seemed  to  be  en- 
joying themselves. 

3.  All  efforts  to  restore  life  were  fruitless. 

4.  As  was  the  historian,  so  were  the  auditors,  given  to 
asking  questions,  apt  to  believe  on  slight  evidence. 

5.  The  end  of  writing  is  to  instruct. 


352  An  English  Grammar 

6.  What  cause  withholds  you  then  to  mourn  for  him? 

7.  To  earn  is  to  have. 

8.  Read  not  to  contradict  and  confute. 

9.  I  find  the  perfection  of  the  Greek  language  to  lie 
largely  in  the  absence  of  every  exclusive  or  unconditional 
rule. 

10.  A  man  can  tind  more  reasons  to  do  as  he  wishes 
than  to  do  as  he  ought. 

11.  "What  is  a- Caucus-race?  "  said  Alice;  not  that  she 
much  wanted  to  know,  but  the  Dodo  had  paused  as  if  it 
thought  that  somebody  ought  to  speak,  and  no  one  else 
seemed  inclined  to  say  anything. 

12.  To  tell  you  the  truth,  my  errand  is  not  so  much  to 
buy  as  to  borrow. 

13.  The  winter  climate  of  Venice  is  still  so  sharp  as  to 
make  foreigners  regret  the  generous  fires  and  warmly  built 
houses  of  the  North. 

14.  The  way  to  be  original  is  to  be  healthy. 

15.  To  learn  obeying  is  the  fundamental  art  of  govern- 
ing. 

16.  The  reward  of  a  good  sentence  is  to  have  written  it. 

17.  The  idea  of  a  man's  interviewing  himself  is  rather 
odd,  to  be  sure. 

18.  There  is  nothing  to  be  done  but  to  turn  'round 
and  hoe  back  to  the  other  end. 

19.  To  forget  Homer,  to  cease  to  be  concerned  and 
even  curious  about  Homer,  is  to  make  a  fatal  step  towards 
a  new  barbarism. 

312.  Substantive  Modifiers  of  the  Infinitive. 

I.  In  the  sentence,  To  skate,  moving  gracefully 
over  the  ice,  is  a  pleasant  pastime,  the  expression, 
moving  gracefully  over  the  ice,  is  the  appositive 
modifier  of  the  infinitive,  to  skate.  An  infinitive 
mav  sometimes  take  an  appositive  modifier;  as,  To 


The  Infinitive  353 

breathe,  drawing  air  into  the  lungs,  is  necessary 
to  life. 

2.  In  the  sentence,  To  read  good  books  is  proHt- 
ahle,  the  expression,  good  hooks,  is  the  direct 
objective  modifier  of  the  infinitive,  to  read.  An 
infinitive  may  take  a  direct  objective  modifier;  as, 
He  likes  to  visit  his  friends. 

3.  In  the  sentence,  The  girl  wishes  to  give  her 
friends  hooks,  the  expression,  her  friends,  is  the  in- 
direct objective  modifier  of  the  infinitive,  to  give. 
An  infinitive  may  take  an  indirect  objective  modi- 
fier; as.  The  hoy  wishes  to  write  to  you. 

4.  In  the  sentence,  To  walk  a  mile  is  good  exer- 
cise, the  expression,  a  mile,  is  the  adverbial  object- 
ive modifier  of  the  infinitive,  to  zvalk.  An  infini- 
tive may  take  an  adverbial  objective  modifier;  as, 
He  was  asked  to  sfcak  five  minutes. 

313.  Attributive  Modifier  of  Infinitive.  In 
the  sentence.  To  spend  money  recklessly  is  criminal, 
the  word,  recklessly,  is  an  adverbial  modifier  of  the 
infinitive,  to  spend,  expressing  the  adverbial  idea  of 
manner.  An  infinitive  may  take  an  adverbial 
modifier;  as.  To  laugh  boisterously  is  a  mark  of  an 
ill-hred  person. 

We  may  see  from  this  discussion  of  the  modi- 
fiers of  the  infinitive  that,  even  when  it  is  used  sub- 
stantively, it  retains  its  verbal  nature  because  it 
takes  the  modifiers  of  a  verb. 

314.  Forms  of  Infinitives.     The  forms  of  the 


354  An  English  Grammar 

infinitive  of  the  verb,  sell,  may  be  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner.  They  illustrate  the  forms  of  the 
infinitive  of  any  verb. 

1.  Active. 

a.  Present;  as,   To  sell. 

b.  Perfect;  as,  To  have  sold. 

2.  Passive. 

a.  Present;  as,   To   he  sold. 

b.  Perfect ;  as,   To  have  been  sold. 

Exercise  log 

In  flic  following  sentences  point  out  each  iniini- 
iive,  tell  what  form  it  is  and  give  its  exact  use  in  the 
sentence.     Giz>e  its  modifiers  if  it  has  any: 

1.  To  be  good  is  to  be  great. 

2.  To  forgive  is  to  be  charitable. 

3.  The  noblest  revenge  is  to  forgive. 

4.  My  friend  is  about  to  depart. 

5.  All  desire  to  live  long  but  no  one  would  be  old. 

6.  It  is  easy  to  disagree  with  a  friend. 

7.  The  lion,  to  speak  figuratively,  is  the  king  of  beasts. 

8.  My  child  is  anxious  to  go  to  school. 

9.  My  friend  failed  to  appear. 

10.  We  believe  in  the  life  to  come. 

11.  Time  to  come  is  called  future  time. 

12.  The  school  is  to  enjoy  a  holiday. 

13.  The  people  are  to  trust  their  leaders. 

14.  We  eat  to  live  and  do  not  live  to  eat. 

15.  I  know  him  to  be  a  man. 

16.  They  made  William  king. 

17.  The  boy  grew  to  be  useful. 

18.  To  learn  a  lesson  accurately  is  difficult 

19.  I  love  to  read  good  books. 


The  InHnitive  355 

20.  He  loves  to  send  presents  to  his  friends. 

21.  To  stud}-,  exercismg  your  mind,  is  excellent  Irainmg. 

22.  To  die,  sleeping  always,  is  not  much  to  be  dreaded. 

23.  Man  never  is  but  always  to  be  blessed. 

24.  To  err  is  human. 

25.  To  obey  is  to  enjoy. 

26.  He  loves  to  play. 

2y.  He  is  trying  to  learn. 

28.  To   spend  money  recklessly  is  criminal. 

29.  To  report  a  speech  correctly  is  difficult. 

30.  I  study  to  learn. 

31.  They  bade  him  depart. 

32.  I  saw  him  falter. 

33.  I  hope  to  see  you. 

34.  I  intended  to  call  for  you. 

35.  He  expected  to  see  you  yesterday. 

36.  To  do  justice  and  judgment  is  more  acceptable  than 
sacrifice. 

37.  It  IS  our  duty  to  try,  and  our  determination  to  suc- 
ceed. 

38.  They  had  dared  to  think  for  themselves. 

39.  Flee  from  the  wrath  to  come. 

40.  I  heard  him  declaim. 

41.  He  went  to  see  the  World's  Fair. 

42.  The   gods   are  hard  to   reconcile. 

43.  The  rain  threatening  to  fall,  we  left  early. 

44.  He  told  me  when  to  come. 

45.  They  tried  to  cheat,  rob  and  murder  him. 

46.  I  come  not  here  to  talk. 

47.  In  sooth,  deceit  maketh  no  mortal  gay. 

48.  It  is  better  to  fight  for  the  good  than  to  rail  at  the 
ill. 

4Q.  Let  the  great  world  sp:n  forever  down  the  ringing 
grooves  of  change. 

50.  1  saw  along  the  winter  snow  a  spectral  column  pour. 


Chapter  XX 

THE  PARTICIPLE 

315.  The  Participle  Defined.  In  the  sentence, 
The  girl,  sitting  by  the  zvindow,  is  my  sister,  the 
word,  sitting,  is  a  derived  form  of  the  verb  but  it 
does  not  express  a  thought  relation.  We  call  such 
a  form  of  the  verb  a  participle.  A  participle  is 
the  derived  form  of  the  verb  which  does  not  ex- 
press a  thought  relation;  as.  The  pitcher,  broken 
at  the  fountain,  eannot  he  restored. 

All  derived  forms  of  the  verb  which  do  not  express 
thought  relations  will,  according  to  this  definition,  be 
classed  as  participles.  Some  grammarians  distinguish  be- 
tween what  we  have  called  the  substantive  participle  (but 
they  call  the  infinitive  ending  in  ing  or  gerund),  and  the 
participle  proper,  the  form  used  as  an  adjective,  holding 
that  the  gerund  has  a  different  origin  in  the  development 
of  the  language.  This  is  probably  true.  It  is  probable 
that  the  gerund  or  substantive  participle  (the  infinitive 
ending  in  ing),  has  been  formed  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
infinitive  in  an.  This  at  a  later  period  became  en.  The 
termination,  en,  was  afterwards  changed  to  ing,  an  end- 
mg  borrowed  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  verbal  noun.  While 
the  participle  proper  is  derived  from  the  participle  in 
the  Anglo-Saxon  and  generally  ends  in  ed.  But  when 
the  form  ends  in  ing,  it  is  so  difficult  to  distinguish  the 
gerund  or  infinitive  in  mg,  from  the  participle  proper  or 
adjective  used  as  a  noun,  that  the  two  may  be  considered 
together  and  both  called  participles.    There  is  no  advantage 

[356] 


The  Participle  357 

to  be  gained  in  the  study  of  modern  English  in  trying  to 
maintain  the  distinctions  in  the  origin  of  these  forms. 

We  call  all  derived  forms  of  the  verb,  then,  participles. 
The  only  difificulty  the  pupil  will  now  have,  according  to 
this  definition,  will  be  in  distinguishing  between  verbal  or 
abstract  nouns  and  participles  in  ing,  used  substantively. 
This  distinction  is  difficult  to  make  because  it  is  a  dis- 
tinction in  meaning  and  not  in  form.  The  verbal  or  ab- 
stract noun  is  wholly  substantive  in  meaning  and  nature.  It 
expresses  an  object  of  thought  which  was  at  one  time  an  at- 
tribute expressed  by  a  verb,  but  it  does  not  take  the  modi- 
fiers which  belong  to  a  verb.  Some  examples  will  make 
the  distinction  clear;  as,  Reading,  writing,  and  spelling  are 
taught  in  the  public  schools. 

The  words,  reading,  mn-iting,  and  spelling,  in  this  sen- 
tence are  clear  examples  of  abstract  or  verbal  nouns.  They 
will  not  take  adverbial  or  direct  objective  modifiers,  or  any 
of  the  modifiers  of  the  verb.  This  shov.'s  that  they  do  not 
retain  their  verbal  nature,  although  they  may  be  derived 
from  verbs. 

1.  The  boy  reading  the  story  book  is  my  brother. 

2.  The  girl,  writing  the  letter,  is  ten  years  old. 

3.  The  child,  spelling  the  words  of  the  signs,  cannot 
read. 

In  these  sentences  the  words,  reading,  zvriting,  and 
spelling,  are  participles,  but  they  are  used  as  adjectives. 
Such  participles  are  easily  distinguished  from  abstract  or 
verbal  nouns. 

1.  Reading  the  story  was  entertainment  enough  for 
Harry. 

2.  Writing  rapidly  is  tiresome. 

3.  Spelling  long  words  rapidlx    is  difiicull. 

Tn  these  sentences  the  words  reading,  ivriting.  and 
spelling,  are  used  substantively  and  they  arc  participles. 
They  are  used  in  the  sentences  with  tlie  value  of  substan- 


ooS  A>i  Ji)tii^lisli  (I'raiiiinar 

five  words,  but  at  the  same  time  the\-  retain  their  verbal 
nature  because  each  one  oi  ihem  makes  us  think  luore  of 
an  act  than  of  an  object  ol'  tliought  or  a  process;  antl  they 
each  take  some  of  the  moditiers  ol  the  verb.  Fhe  dis- 
tinction between  the  pariieii'ile  which  is  used  substantivel} 
and  the  alistract  ov  \eilial  noun  iiui\.  in  this  wav.  he  easil\ 
seen. 

Exercise  no 

Select  all  flic  partici'l^lcs  from  flic  follozviiig  scii- 
fciiccs:  fell  'ivliy  they  arc  f^arfici/^lcs.  atnl  ^i^/Vv  the 
rcrbs  from  zclnch  tlicy  arc  derived: 

I.  Alter  strngi^hnt;'  for  some  time  in  the  deep  water, 
he  sank  to  rise  no  more. 

_\  The  blessed  work  oi  helping;  the  world  forward 
happily  does  not  wait  to  be  done  h\    perfect  men. 

^^   Tie  was  two  weeks  learning:   to  use  his  dippers. 

4.  riiey   are   winnh    learnui::;. 

5.  riie  river  was  swollen   wUh  the  long'  rains. 
•6.  Mrs.  L'ratchit  made  the  QTav\-  hissing'  hot. 

7.  His  writing-  has  little  commercial  xaluc,  requiring 
too  much  time  in  execution. 

S.  Knowing'  that  T  have  no  right  to  sjH^ik  here.  1  ask 
your  leave. 

9.  The  fog'  came  pourmg  m  at  every  chink  aiul  key- 
hole. 

10.  Night  coming-  on,  they  broke  their  prison  bars  and 
escaped,  only  to  be  recaptured  before  niorning. 

316.  Substantive  Uses  of  the  Participle,  i .  I  n 
the  sentence.  JJ\il}x'iiig  raf^idly  is  good  exercise,  the 
participle,  zcalkiiig.  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  sen- 
tence. A  participle  may  be  used  as  the  subject  o\ 
a  sentence:  ;is.  Writing  letters  is  hard.  The  loving 
arc  the  daring. 


The  Participle  -^59 

2.  In  the  sentence,  Boxing  vigorously  is  not 
fighting,  the  participle,  fighting,  is  used  as  the  predi- 
cate of  the  sentence.  A  participle  may  be  used  as 
the  predicate  of  a  sentence;  as,  Painting  is  not 
daubing  a  canvas  with  color. 

3.  In  the  sentence.  He  heard  the  rapid  running 
of  the  water,  the  word,  running,  is  a  participle.  It 
is  used  as  the  direct  objective  modifier  of  the  verb. 
heard.  A  participle  may  be  used  as  a  direct 
objective  modifier ;  as,  IVe  saw  tlie  wrestling  on 
the  lazi'u. 

4.  In  the  sentence,  My  brother  is  certain  of  suc- 
ceeding in  his  enterprise,  the  word,  succeeding,  is 
a  participle.  It  is  used  as  the  indirect  objective 
modifier  of  the  adjective,  certain.  A  participle  may 
be  used  as  an  indirect  objective  modifier;  as, 
The  boy  is  desirous  of  learning  rapidly. 

5.  In  the  sentence,  IV e  learn  to  do  by  doing,  the 
word,  doing,  is  a  participle.  It  is  used  as  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  prepositional  phrase.  A  participle 
may  be  used  as  the  principal  part  of  a  prepo- 
sitional phrase ;  as.  By  running  rapidly  we  caught 
the  train.  There  arc  hut  three  ways  of  living;  by 
working,  by  stealing,  or  by  begging. — Proude. 

G.  In  the  sentence,  That  exercise,  running  rap- 
idly, requires  endurance,  the  word,  running,  is  a 
partici])le.  It  is  used  as  an  appositive  modifier  of 
the  word,  exercise.    A  participle  may  be  used  as  an 


360  Afi  English  Grammar 


&* 


appositive  modifier;  as,  That  event,  hurling  the 
discus,  is  dangerous. 

7.  In  the  sentence,  The  master  being  away,  the 
work  was  neglected,  the  expression,  the  master 
being  azvay,  is  said  to  be  used  independently.  We 
can  easily  see,  however,  as  was  pointed  out  under 
the  independent  use  of  the  infinitive,  Section  309, 
that  this  expression  may  be  changed  into  an  ad- 
verbial modifier.  The  sentence  really  means,  the  work 
was  neglected  because  the  master  zvas  azvay.  If 
we  take  it  this  way,  the  expression,  the  master  being 
away,  is  a  clausal  phrase.  This  seems  a  more  rea- 
sonable way  to  deal  with  this  construction.  How- 
ever, most  grammarians  give  the  participle  and  the 
infinitive  an  independent  or  absolute  use;  as. 
Speaking  figuratively,  the  man  is  a  wolf  in  sheep's 
clothing. 

317.  Attributive  Uses  of  the  Participle,     i.  In 

the  sentence,  The  boy  leaving  the  doors  open  be- 
hind him,  rushed  througJi  the  house,  the  word, 
leaving,  is  a  participle.  It  is  used  as  an  adjective 
modifier  of  the  noun,  boy.  A  participle  may  be  used 
as  an  adjective  modifier;  as.  The  prisoner,  stupefied 
with  terror,  could  not  respond. 

2.  In  the  sentence,  The  plants  were  growing, 
the  word,  growing,  is  a  participle.  It  is  used  as 
the  predicate  of  the  sentence.  A  participle  may  be 
used  as  the  predicate  of  a  sentence;  as.  The  stream 
was  flowing. 


The  Participle  361 

3.  In  the  sentence,  The  child  grew  interested  in 
the  story,  the  word,  interested,  is  a  participle.  It 
is  used  as  the  second  part  of  the  double  predicate, 
grezu  interested  in  the  story.  A  participle  may  be 
used  as  the  second  part  of  a  double  predicate;  as, 
The  man  became  imbued  zvith  the  idea.  (See 
double  predicate  under  the  infinitive,  Section  ^11. 

4.  In  the  sentence,  The  rain  came  dashing  down, 
the  word,  dashing,  is  a  participle.  It  seems  here 
to  partake  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective  expressing 
an  attribute  of  the  object  of  thought,  rain  (it  was 
a  dashing  rain)  ;  and  also  of  the  nature  of  an  adverb 
expressing  an  attribute  of  the  attribute  expressed 
by  the  word,  came,  the  manner  of  the  "coming." 
Such  a  participle  may  be  said  to  have  an  adjective- 
adverb  use.  A  participle  may  be  used  as  an  ad- 
jective-adverb; as.  The  hail  came  pelting  against 
the  zvindow. 

5.  This  adjective-adverb  use  seems  sometimes 
to  shade  off  into  almost  a  pure  adverbial  use;  as, 
The  horse  came  trotting  dozvn  the  road.  The  par- 
ticiple, trotting,  here  seems  to  express  almost 
wholly  the  manner  of  coming.  A  participle  may  be 
used  as  an  adverb;  as.  The  boy  went  tearing 
through  the  zvheat. 

318.  Relational  Uses  of  the  Participle.  In  the 
sentence,  llie  train  being  late,  we  did  not  start,  the 
word,  being,  is  a  participle.  The  group  of  words, 
the  train  being  late,  is  a  clausal  phrase  and  the  par- 


362  An  English  Grammar 

ticiple,  being,  is  the  copula-like  element  of  it.  The 
sentence  means,  IVe  did  not  start  because  the  train 
zuas  late.  A  participle  may  be  used  as  the  copula- 
like element  of  a  clausal  phrase;  as,  My  uncle 
being  ready,  zve  left  immediately. 

In  the  sentence,  He  stood,  being  hesitating  in 
his  manner,  thq  word,  being,  is  a'  participle.  It  is 
used  as  the  copula-like  element  with  the  second  part 
of  the  double  predicate,  Jiesitating  in  his  manner. 
A  participle  may  be  used  as  the  copula-like  element 
with  the  second  part  of  the  double  predicate;  as, 
He  waited,  (being)  absorbed  in  thought.  The  par- 
ticiple is  the  word,  being,  understood.  These  ex- 
pressions, being  hesitating  in  his  manner,  and  ab- 
sorbed in  thought,  are  often  called  adjective  modi- 
fiers of  the  subject. 

Exercise  iii 

Illustrate  as  many  uses  of  the  participle  as  you 
can,  by  constructing  sentences  containing  these  par- 
ticiples and  participial  phrases:  making,  disguis- 
ing, zvearing,  rejoicing,  finishing,  being  zvhipped, 
having  been  lost,  being  found,  szvaying,  rocking, 
plunging,  being  told,  haz'ing  been  seen,  having  been 
rising,  hazing  been  zvalking,  having  zvalked,  lost, 
szvollen,  steeped,  fumbling,  squealing,  being  made. 

319.  Substantive  Modifiers  of  the  Participle. 

I.  In  the  sentence,  Spelling  rapidly,  naming  the 

letters  of  a  zvord,  is  difficult,  the  expression,  naming 


The  Participle  363 

tlie  letters  of  a  zvord,  is  an  appositive  modifier  of 
the  ])articiple,  spelling.  The  participle  may  take  an 
appositive  modifier;  as,  Writing  neatly,  forming 
the  letters  which  compose  words, /^^  not  an  easy 
task. 

The  participle  does  not  often  take  an  appositive 
modifier. 

2.  In  the  sentence,  JVe  did  not  like  his  singing, 
the  word,  his,  is  a  possessive  modifier  of  the  par- 
ticiple, singing.  A  participle  may  take  a  possessive 
modifier;  as,  Tom's  rolling  the  ball  made  us  neri'- 
ons. 

3.  In  the  sentence,  The  boy  is  bringing  the  ear- 
riage,  the  expression,  the  carriage,  is  the  direct  ob- 
jective modifier  of  tlie  participle,  bringing.  A  par- 
ticiple ma}'  take  a  direct  objective  modifier;  as, 
The  boy  playing  the  cornet  is  the  leader  of  the  band. 

.4.  In  the  sentence,  !V riling  to  the  boy,  he  said, 
"go  quickly",  the  expression,  the  boy,  is  the  indi- 
rect objective  modifier  of  the  participle,  zvrifing.  A 
participle  may  take  an  indirect  objective  modifier; 
as,  Giz'inz  the  reins  to  the  driver,  he  dismounted 
from  the  carriage. 

5.  In  the  sentence,  Walking  the  mile  zvas  tire- 
some, the  expression,  the  mile,  is  an  adverbial  ob- 
lective  modifier  of  the  participle,  zvalking.  A  par- 
ticiple may  take  an  adverbial  objective  modifier; 
as,  We  zvere  zvaiting  fifteen  minutes. 

320.  Attributive  Modifier  of  Participle.    1.  In 


364  An  Englis/i  Graniniar 

the  sentence,  Thinking  rapidly  requires  presence  of 
mind,  the  word,  rapidly,  is  an  adverbial  modifier  of 
the  participle,  thinking.  A  participle  may  take  an 
adverbial  modifier;  as,  The  child,  reading  aloud, 
was  heard  all  over  the  house. 

321.  Forms  of  Participles.  The  forms  of  the 
participle  from  the  verb,  see,  may  be  indicated  as 
follows.  They  will  illustrate  the  participial  forms 
of  any  verb : 

1.  Active. 

a.  Present;  as,  Seeing. 

b.  Perfect;  as.  Having  seen. 

2.  Passive. 

a.  Present:  as,  Being  seen. 

b.  Perfect;  as.  Having  been  seen. 

Exercise  112 

III  the  folhnving  sentences  point  out  each  iniini- 
tive  and  participle,  tell  what  form  each  is,  give  its 
exact  use  in  the  sentence  and  all  its  modifiers: 

1.  Thoughts  shut  up,  want  air. 

And  spoil  Hke  bales  unopened  to  the  sun. 

— Young. 

2.  Let  us  be  content  in  work, 

To  do  the  thing  we  can,  and  not  presume 
To  fret  because  it's  little. 

3.  One  day  with  life  and  heart. 

Is  more  than  time  enough  to  find  a  world. 

4.  Needful  auxiliaries  are  our   friends,  to  give 
To  social  man  true  relish  of  himself. 

5.  Learn  well  to  know  how  much  need  not  be  known, 
And  what  that  knowledge  which  impairs  your  sense. 


The  Participle  365 

6.  Let  him  not  violate  kind  nature's  laws, 
But  own  man  born  to  live  as  well  as  die. 

7.  The  blood  more  stirs 

To  rouse  a  lion  than  to  start  a  hare. 

8.  He  that  lacks  time  to  mourn  lacks  time  to  mend. 

— Taylor. 

9.  It  is  the  curse  of  kings  to  be  attended 

By  slaves  that  take  their  humors  for  a  warrant. 
To  break  within  the  bloody  house  of  life, 
And  on   the  winking  of   authority. 
To  understand  a  law. 
10.  Have  you   sons!     Look  in  the  next  fierce  brawl 
To  see  them  die.     Have  ye  fair  daughters?     Look 
To  see  them  live,  torn  from  your  arms,  distained. 
Dishonored,  and  if  ye  dare  call,   for  justice 
Be  answered  bv  the  lash. 


Chapter  XXI 

THE   PREPOSITION 

322.  Preposition  Defined.  A  preposition  is  a 
relational  word  which  expresses  a  relation  be- 
tween ideas  of  unequal  rank;  as,  The  president 
lives  in  JJ\isJiiiigfon. 

323.  Uses  of  Preposition.  In  the  sentence, 
IVe  rise  early  in  the  morning,  the  preposition,  in, 
is  the  relational  word  of  the  prepositional  phrase, 
in  the  morning.  In  the  sentence,  She  wrote  to  her 
mother,  the  preposition,  to,  expresses  the  relation 
between  the  object  of  thought  expressed  by  the  in- 
direct objective  modifier,  her  mother,  and  the  at- 
tribute expressed  by  the  verb,  zvrote.  The  expres- 
sion, to  Jier  mother,  is  not  a  prepositional  phrase  as 
is  the  expression,  in  the  morning,  in  the  first  sen- 
tence. 

The  preposition  alwavs  has  one  of  these  two 
uses : 

1.  It  is  the  relational  word  of  a  preposit'onal 
phrase;  as,  JVho  works  in  the  morning? 

2.  It  expresses  the  relation  between  the  ob- 
ject of  thnu,2;ht  expressed  by  an  indirect  objective 
modifier  and  the  attribute  expressed  by  the  word 

[366] 


The  Preposition  367 

which  it  modifies;  as,  Slic  gave  assistance  to  tJic 
needy. 

324.  Modifiers   of   the   Preposition.      As    we 

liave  already  seen  under  die  simple  sentence,  Sec- 
tion 58,  the  preposition  may  take  the  following- 
modifiers  : 

1.  The  adverbial;  as,  Tiie  Jiouse  stands  just 
aeross  the  rirer. 

2.  The  adverbial  objective;  as,  The  boy  lives 
two  miles  helo2V  the  city. 

Exercise  113 

In  tJie  follozving  sentences  point  out  each  prepo- 
sition, give  its  exact  use,  and  all  its  modifiers: 

1.  He  was  brave  on  the  field  of  battle. 

2.  He  triumphed  in  his  death. 

3.  The   boy   is   very   popular   with   his   playmates.    • 

4.  Samuel  offered  his  seat  to  the  lady. 

5.  The  teacher  gave  the  book  to  Sarah. 

6.  The  slave  was  very  grateful  to  his  master. 

7.  The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave. 

8.  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day. 

9.  Good  deeds  return  to  bless  him  who  does  them. 
10.  To  waste  in  youth  is  to  want  in  old  age. 

325.  Object  of  Prepositions.  The  substantive 
expression,  following"  a  preposition,  is  usually  called 
"the  object  of  the  preposition."  It  is  easy  to  see, 
however,  that  a  preposition  cannot  have  an  object, 
that  is,  a  direct  or  indirect  objccti\e  modi  Tier  l)e- 
cause    it   always   expresses   an    idea   of   relation. 


368  An  English  Grammar 


is' 


Words  which  take  direct  or  indirect  objective 
modifiers  must  express  attributes.  The  expres- 
sion, *'  object  of  a  ])repositi()n,"  is,  therefore,  mis- 
leading. The  substantive  exi)ressions  following 
prepositions  are  in  the  objective  case,  but  this  is 
because  when  any  such  expressions  having  dif- 
ferent case  forms  are  used  after  prepositions,  the 
objective  form  is  always  used.  The  substantive 
expression  which  follows  the  preposition  is  the 
principal  part  of  a  prepositional  phrase  or  else 
it  is  an  indirect  objective  modifier. 

Exercise  114 

Prepositions  are  small  words  but  they  are  very 
important  in  onr  language  because  they  have  many 
idiomatic  uses.  Most  of  these  can  be  learned  only 
by  noticing  the  usage  of  good  speakers  and  writers. 
Try  to  make  the  proper  distinction  betzveen  at  and 
in,  to  and  with,  in  and  to,  from  and  with,  in  and 
into,  in  and  within,  on  and  upon. 

From  the  expressions  inclosed  in  the  marks  of 
parent  lie  sis  in  each  of  the  follozving  sentences  select 
the  correct  one: 

1.  The  vessel  will  arrive  (zvithin,  inside)  of  two  weeks. 

2.  He  did  not  remember  (saying,  of  saying)  that  the 
thief  was  tall. 

3.  She  replied.  "  not  that  I  (remember,  remember  of)," 

4.  Is  your  father  (at,  to)  home? 

5.  The  greatest  masters  of  critical  learning  differ 
(among,  from,  zvith)   one  another. 

6.  They  danced  (round,  around)  the  pole. 


The  Preposition  369 

7.  He  was  not  successful,  as  a  rule,  (■zi'ith,  at)  narra- 
tive. 

8.  There  was  the  old  man  in  the  forest  (back  of,  be- 
hind) the  barn. 

9.  (Behind,  back  of)  his  falsehood,  there  is  a  truth. 

10.  I   have   no   decided   preference     (betzcecn,    among) 
these  five  authors. 

11.  There  is  some  trouble  (among,  betzveen)  the  teach- 
er and  his  pupils. 

12.  She     made     a     resolution     (ivith,    bcticccn)     every 
mouthful,  never  to  say  one  word  to  that  magpie  again. 

13.  He  interfered  with  her  sister's  attachment  (to,  for) 
Mr.  Bingley. 

14.  The  old  clock  on  the  stairs  frightened  us   (by,  in) 
striking  two. 

15.  Judged   (from,  by)  this  fstandpoint.  point  of  ineiv) 
he  was  wanting. 

16.  He  put  the  water  (in,  ivithin)  reach  of  the  dog. 

17.  He  went  (in,  into)  the  house. 

18.  He  was  thrown  (into,  in)  the  mud. 

19.  This  merging  of  self   (into,  in)  mankind  is  noble. 

20.  Put  money  (in,  into)  thy  purse. 

21.  This  discovery  I  made  as  soon  as  I  was  fairly  (in, 
into)  the  room. 

22.  "  Paracelsus  "'    shows    Browning's     clever     insight 
(into,  of)  man. 

22,.   \'o\\  have  an  advantage  (of,  oz'cr)  me  in  that  you 
know  my  name. 

24.  The  difference  (in,  of)  character  ^betzi'cen,  of)  the 
two  men  f affected,  effected)  their  writings. 

25.  There  is  no  use  fin.  of)  my  trying  to  get  ready. 

26.  The  remainder  of  his  wages  (is,  are)  deposited  (on, 
to )  his  credit. 

27.  A  lady  who  did  not  belong  to  some  church  would 
be  looked  (on,  at)  askance. 


370  An  Etiglish  Grammar 

28.  The  vessel  was  blown   (on,  onto)  the  rocks. 

29.  This  was  brought  about  {by,  through)  the  services 
of  friends. 

30.  His  longer  poems  are  of  a  very  different  stamp 
(than,  from)  his  shorter  ones. 

31.  Wordsworth's  ""  Skylark  "  is  altogether  different 
(to,  from)    Shelley's. 

32.  A  difference  arose  (betzveen,  among)  the  two  in 
their  correspondence  (zvith,  to)  each  other. 

33.  Your  decision  accords  (to,  zvith)  mine. 

34.  Gladstone  set  out  (for,  to)  London. 

35.  The  vessel  sank  far  out  (at,  to)  sea. 

36.  I  believe  (on,  to)  the  contrary  that  Washington  was 
the  greatest  of  good  men,  and  best  of  great  men. 

37.  Byron's  "  Farewell  "  was  written  after  his  separa- 
tion (from,  zvith)  his  wife. 

38.  He  was  accompanied   (by,  zvith)  his  wife. 

39.  I  differ  (from,  zvith)  you. 

40.  We  parted  (from,  zvith)  him  at  the  corner. 

41.  He  was  fully  alive  to  the  advantages  of  foreign 
methods  (as  zvell  as  to  the  necessity  of  using  them,  as  zvell 
as  the  necessity  of  using  them). 

42.  I  wrote  (to  him.  him)  in  May. 

43.  I  went  to  Chicago  and  (from  thence,  thence)  to  St. 
Louis. 

44.  They   (pondered,  pondered  over)   the  question. 

45.  One   calamity    (follows,   follozvs  after)    another. 

46.  The  teacher  (examined,  examined  into)  the  subject 
f^arefuUy. 


Chapter  XXII 

THE  CONJUNCTIOX 

326.  Conjunction  Defined.  A  conjunction  is  a 
relational  word  which  expresses  an  unasserted  re- 
lation between  ideas  or  thoughts  of  equal  rank  or 
thoughts  of  unequal  rank;  as.  Two  and  three  are 
five.  The  day  is  briL!;hf  and  the  ivind  is  fresJi.  TJiey 
came  though  zee  did  not  expect  them. 

327.  Classes  of  Conjunctions.  It  is  clear  from 
the  definition  and  from  the  work  on  the  compound 
and  complex  sentences  that  conjunctions  are  of  two 
classes : 

1.  A  conjunction  which  expresses  a  relation 
hetween  ideas  or  thouc;"hts  of  ef|ual  rank  is  called 
a  co-ordinate  conjunction;  as.  Bread  and  milk  is 
good  food.     TrutJi  is  migJify  and  //  zvill  prevail. 

2.  A  conjunction  may  express  relation  be- 
tween tliou.Q;bts  of  unequal  rank.  This  is  called  a 
subordinate  conjunction;  as,  They  walked  zvifh 
us  until  the  train  left. 

328.  Correlative  Conjunctions.  Two  words 
often  perform,  tbe  office  of  a  single  conjunction; 
the  first  of  the  pair  indicating  that  something  will 
presently  be  added.    We  call  such  pairs  of  words 

[3711 


372  An  English  Grammar 

correlative  conjunctions;  as.  The  man  zvas  neither 
Jwuesf  nor  efficient.  Both  JVilliam  and  Thomas 
ivere  present. 

329.  Phrasal  Conjunctions.  Sometimes  a 
group  of  more  llian  two  words  has  the  force  of  a 
single  conjunction  in  the  sentence;  as,  He  came  in 
order  that  he  might  assist  ris.  In  case  that  ive  are 
defeated  we  shall  retreat. 

Such  expressions  may  be  called  phrasal  con- 
junctions. 

Exercise  115 

In  the  follozving  sentences  point  out  each  con- 
junction, classify  it,  give  its  exact  use  in  the  sen- 
tence, and  notice  zvhetJier  or  not  the  conjunction  has 
modifiers: 

1.  Truth  makes  man  free,  but  error  binds  him  in  end- 
less chains. 

2.  Sincerity  and  modesty  are  essential  to  good  char- 
acter. 

3.  The  blue  and  white  flower  is  a  pansy. 

4.  Goodness  and  mercy  shall  follow  me  all  the  days  of 
my  life. 

5.  I  shall  not  proceed  for  danger  lurks  in  my  course. 

6.  I  will  have  the  heart  of  him  if  he  forfeit. 

7.  I  know  that  you  will  be  pleased  with  my  friend. 

8.  I  see  that  you  are  disappointed  in  the  book. 

9.  Bread  and  butter  is  palatable  food. 

10.  I  shall  be  sure  to  see  you  for  I  live  in  the  town. 

11.  Swearing  is  neither  profitable  nor  pleasant. 

12.  You  will  have  to  study  or  you  will  get  behind  your 
class. 


The  Conjunction  373 

13.  I  have  seen  other  people  make  the  same  mistake, 
therefore  I  warn  you. 

14.  Cunning  may  succeed  for  a  time,  but  in  the  end 
murder  will  out. 

15.  I  oft  delivered  from  his  forfeitures 

Many  that  have  at  times  made  moan  to  me ; 
Therefore  he  hates  me. 

Exercise  116 

Be  careful  to  select  the  correct  conjunctions  to 
express  your  nieanin^^.  From  the  expressions  in- 
closed in  the  marks  of  parenthesis  in  each  of  the  fol- 
lozi'ing  sentences,  select  the  correct  one  and  give 
reasons: 

1.  I  am  not  sure   (as,  that)   cither  my  brother  or  my 
friend  can  help  you. 

2.  Then  (as,  likcj  all  rich  men  do,  he  appealed  to  the 
public. 

3.  They  were  told  not  to  leave  (unless,  ivithont)  they 
were  sent  for. 

4.  Then  these  same  sisters  of  mercy  are  batliing  a  hot 
heail  for,  and )  1)inding'  a  broken  limb. 

5.  At  that  time  he  was  going  (and,  or)  coming  twice 
a  day. 

6.  Wy  father  is  a  wise  (hut,  and)  cautious  man. 

7.  (Since,  as)  \ou  are  going  my  way,  I  might  as  well 
ride. 

8.  I  loved  Lincoln   (as.  because )  he  was  a  true  man. 

9.  T  consider  him  a  superior  man  in  (both,  all)  in- 
tellect, feeling,  and  courage. 

10.  They  regret  (how,  that)  they  left  school. 

11.  They  told  us  (hoiv,  that)  they  had  just  visited 
Switzerland  and  (how,  that)  they  had  thought  of  boarding 
the  Kibe. 


374  All  Engiis/i  Gram  mar 

12.  (Though,  if)  science  has  made  mncli  progress,  there 
arc  still  many  problems. 

13.  I  am  sure  that  it  was  neither  my  father   (or,  nor) 
my  mother. 

14.  The   book   was   neither   so  interesting    (or,   nor)    so 
helpful  as  we  had  hoped  to  find  it. 

15.  I  have  no  word  from  the  vessel  (or,  nor)  do  I  ex- 
pect any  to-day. 

16.  (Though   alone  in    the   Jiouse.   I  z>.'as  alone   in    the 
house  but)  I  was  not  frightened. 

17.  He   looked   at  me  curiously    (as  if,  as  though)    he 
knew  me. 

18.  \'ery  soon,  (though,  hoicever) ,  the  sun  appeared. 

19.  I  smiled  and  tried  to  make  myself  agreeable  (zvhen, 
though)  my  head  was  almost  bursting. 

20.  (While,  zvhen)   walking  out  this  morning,   I   found 
several  white  anemones, 

21.  To  learn   the   subjects   is   a   dit^cult    task,     (z^'hile, 
but)  to  teach  them  is  much  more  difficult. 

22.  She  was  under  the  large  tree  in  the  yard,   (zvhile, 
and)  beside  her  was  her  book. 


Work  in  Composition 

THE  REA'ENGE 

I. 

At  Flores  in  the  Azores  Sir  Richard  Grenville  lay. 

And  a  pinnace,  like  a  flutter'd  bird,  came  flying  from  far 
away : 

"  Spanish  ships  of  war  at  sea !  We  have  sighted  fifty- 
three  !  " 

Then  sware  Lord  Thomas  Howard :  "  'Fore  God,  I  am  no 
coward ; 


The  Conjunction  '^T5 

But  T  cannot  meet  them  here,  for  mv  ships  are  out  of  g'ear, 
And  the  half  mv  men  are  sick.  I  must  fly.  but  follow  quick. 
We  are  six  ships  of  the  line  ;  can  we  fight  with  fifty-three?  " 

IT. 

Then  spake  Sir  Richard  Crcnville  :  "  I  know  \ou  are  no  cow- 
ard ; 

You  fly  them  for  a  moment  to  fioht  with  them  again. 

But  I've  ninety  meri  and  more  that  are  lying  sick  ashore. 

I  should  count  myself  the  coward  if  I  left  them,  my  Lord 
Howard. 

To  these  Inquisition  dogs  and  the  devildoms  of  Spain." 

III. 

So  Lord  Howard  passed  awa\'  with  five  ships  of  war  that 

day. 
Till  he  melted  like  a  cioud  in  the  silent  summer  heaven  ; 
But  Sir  Richard  Ijore  in  hand  all  his  sick  men  from  flic  land 
\'ery  carefully  and  slow. 
Men  of  Bideford  in  Devon, 
And  we  laid  them  on  the  ballast  down  below  ; 
I'or  we  brought  them  all  aboard, 
Anrl  they  blest  him  in  their  pain,  that  they  were  not  left  to 

Spain. 
To  the  thumbscrew  and  the  stake,  for  the  glory  of  the  Lord. 

TV. 
He  had  onlv  a  hundred  seamen  to  work  flie  ^^bip  and  to  fight. 
And  he  sailed  away  from  Mores  till  the  Spaniard  came  in 

sight. 
With  his  huge  sca-castles  heaving  upon  the  weather  bow. 
"  Shall  we  fight  or  shall  we  fly? 
Good  Sir  Ricliard.  tell  us  now. 
For  to  fight  is  but  to  die! 


3't)  All  English  Grammar 

There'll  be  little  of  us  left  by  the  time  this  sun  be  set." 
And  Sir  Richard  said  again  :  "  We  be  all  good  English  men. 
Let  us  bang  these  dogs  of  Seville,  the  children  of  the  devil, 
For  1  never  turned  my  back  upon  Don  or  devil  yet." 

V. 

Sir  Richard  spoke,  and  he  laughed,  and  we  roar'd  a  hurrah, 
and  so 

The  little  Revenge  ran  on  sheer  into  the  heart  of  the  foe, 

With  her  hundred  fighters  on  deck,  and  her  ninety  sick  be- 
low ; 

For  half  of  the  fleet  to  the  right  and  half  to  the  left  were 
seen. 

And  the  little  Revenge  ran  on  thro'  the  long  sea-lane  be- 
tween. 

VL 
Thousands  of  their  soldiers  iook'd  down   from  their  decks 

and  laughed. 
Thousands  of  their  seamen  made   mock  at  the  mad   little 

craft 
Running  on  and  on,  till  delay'd 
By  their  mountain-like  San  Philip  that,  of  fifteen  hundred 

tons. 
And  up-shadowing  high  above  us,  with  her  vawning  tiers 

of  guns. 
Took  the  iireath  from  our  sails,  and  we  stay'd. 

VIL 
And  while  now  the  great  San  Philip  hung  above  us  like  a 

cloud 
Whence  the  thunder-bolt  will  fall 
Long  and  louvd. 
Four  galleons  drew  awav 


Tlic  Conjunction  377 

From  the  Spanish  fleet  that  day. 

And  two  upon  the  larboard  and  two  upon  the  starboard  lay, 

And  the  battle-thunder  broke  from  them  all. 

VIII. 
But  anon  the  great  Sar.  Philip  she  bethought  herself  and 

went. 
Having  that  w  ithin  her  womb  that  had  left  her  ill-content ; 
And  the  rest  they  came  aboard  us  and  they  fought  us  hand 

to  liand. 
For  a  dozen  tunes  the\"  came  with    their    pikes    and    mus- 

queteers, 
And  a  dozen  times  we  shook  'em  ofl:'  as  a  dog  that  shakes  his 

ears 
When  he  leaps  from  the  water  to  the  land. 

IX. 

And  the  sun  went  down,  and  the  stars  came  out  far  over  the 
summer  sea, 

But  never  a  moment  ceased  the  fight  of  the  one  and  the  fif- 
ty-three. 

Ship  after  ship,  the  whole  night  long,  their  high-built  gal- 
lecjns   came. 

Ship  after  ship,  the  whole  night  long,  with  her  battle  thun- 
der and  flame : 

Ship  nfter  ship,  the  whole  night  long,  drew  back  with  her 
dead  and  her  shame. 

For  some  were  sunk  and  many  were  shattered,  and  so  could 
fight  us  no  more — 

God  of  battles,  was  ever  a  battle  like  this  in  the  world  be- 
fore ? 

X. 

For  he  said.  "  l*'ight  on  !     Fight  on  !  " 
Tho'  his  vessel  was  all  but  a  wreck  ; 


378  An  Englis/i  Grammar 

And  it  chanced  tliat,  when  half  of  the  short  summer  night 

was  gone, 
With  a  grisly  wound  to  be  dressed  he  had  left  the  deck, 
But  a  bullet  struck  him  that  was  dressing  it  suddenly  dead, 
And   himself   he   was   wounded  again   in   the   side  and  the 

head. 
And  he  said,  "  Fight  on  !    Fight  on  !  " 

XI. 
And  the  night  went  down  and  the  sun  smiled  out  far  over 

the  summer  sea, 
And  the  Spanish  fleet,  with  broken  sides,  lay  round  us  all  in 

a  ring ; 
But  they  dared  not  touch  us  again,  for  they  fear'd  that  we 

still  could  sting, 
So  they  watch'd  what  the  end  would  be. 
And  we  had  not  fought  them  in  vain, 
But  in  perilous  plight  were  we, 
Seeing  forty  of  our  poor  hundred  were  slain, 
And  half  of  the  rest  of  us  maimed  for  life 
Jn  the  crash  of  the  cannonades  and  the  desperate  strife: 
And  the  sick  men  down  in  the  hold  were  most  of  them  stark 

and  cold. 
And  the  pikes  Vv'ere  all  broken  or  bent,  and  the  powder  was 

all  of  it  spent ; 
And  the  masts  and  the  rigging  were  lying  over  the  side ; 
But  Sir  Richard  cried  in  his  English  pride, 
"  We  have  fought  such  a  fight  for  a  day  and  a  night 
As  may  never  be  fought  again ! 
We  have  won  great  glory,  my  men  ! 
And  a  day  less  or  more 
At  sea  or  ashore. 
We  die — does  it  matter  when  ? 
Sink  me  the  ship.  ]\Iaster  Gimner — sink    her,  split    her    in 

twain ! 
Fall  into  the  hands  of  God,  not  into  the  hands  of  Spain !  " 


The  Conjunction  379 

XII. 

And  the  gunner  said,  "  Ay,  ay,"  but  the  seamen  made  reply: 

"  We  have  children,  we  have  wives. 

And  the  Lord  hath  spared  our  lives. 

We  will  make  the  Spaniard  promise,  if  we  yield,  to  let  us 

go; 
We  shall  live  to  fight  again  and  to  strike  another  blow." 
And  the  lion  lay  there  dying,  and  they  yielded  to  the  foe. 

XIII. 

And  the  stately  Spanish  men  to  their    flag-ship    bore    him 

then, 
Where  they  laid  him  by  the  mast,  old  Sir  Richard  caught  at 

last. 
And  they  praised  him  to  his  face  with  their  courtly  foreign 

grace : 
But  he  rose  upon  their  decks  and  he  cried  : 
■■  I  have  fought  for  Queen  and  I-'aith  like  a  valiant  man  and 

true ; 
1  have  only  done  my  duty  as  a  man  is  bound  to  do  : 
With  a  joyful  spirit  I.  Sir  Richard  (jrenville,  die!" 
And  he  fell  upon  their  decks  and  he  died. 

XIV. 
And  they  stared  at  the  dead  that  had  been  so  valiant  and 

true, 
And  had  holdcn  the  power  and  glory  of  Spain  so  cheap 
j^hat  he  dared  her  with  one  little  ship  and  his  English  few ; 
Was  he  devil  or  man  ?    He  was  devil  for  aught  they  knew. 
lUit  they  sank  his  l>ody  with  honor  down  into  the  deep. 
And  they  mann'd  the  Revenge  with  a  swarthier  alien  crew, 
And  away  she  sailed  with  her  loss  and  long'd  for  her  own  ; 
When  a  wind  from  the  lands  they  had  ruin'd  awoke  from 

sleep, 


380  All  Eiiglisli  Grainiiiar 

And  the  water  began  to  heave  and  the  weather  to  moan, 

And  or  ever  that  evening-  ended  a  great  gale  blew. 

And  a  wave  like  the  wave  that  is  raised  by  an  earthquake, 

grew, 
1^ill  it  smote  on  their  hulls  and  their  sails  and  their  masts 

and  their  flags. 
And  the  whole  sea  plunged  and  fell  on  the  shot-shatter'd 

navy  of  Spain. 
And  the  little  Revenge  herself  went    down    bv  the    island 

crags 
To  be  lost  evermore  in  the  main. 

— Alfred  Tennyson. 


L 

'Read  "The  Revenger 

About  zvJiaf  is  the  poem  written?  Between 
-cvhom  did  the  battle  take  place?  When?  Where? 
Who  are  the  main  charaeters  in  the  poem?  JVhaf 
are  the  main  incidents?  IVhat  means  has  been  used 
to  make  the  story  dramatic  and  z'i'c'id? 

Write  the  story  briefly,  telling  some  of  the  story 
through  conversation. 

11. 

JVhat  noble  traits  of  character  did  Sir  Richard 
Grenville  have?  Which  did  he  show  zvhen  he  sazv 
the  enemy  approaching?  Which  in  the  midst  of  the 
fight?  JVhich  zvhen  honored?  Hozv  did  the  enemy 
regard  him?  Hozv  did  his  ozvn  men  regard  him? 
What  zvas  the  strongest  proof  of  his  real  nobility  of 
character? 


TJic  Conjunction  381 

Write  a  character  sketch  one  paragraph  long  of 
Sir  Richard  Grenville.  Let  the  first  sentence  of  your 
paragraph  give  a  general  idea  of  his  character  and 
in  the  others  discuss  it  more  fully.  Give  proofs  for 
all  the  statements  which  you  make. 

III. 

What  names  could  he  given  to  some  of  the  scenes 
and  incidents  in  "The  Revenge?" 

Picture  to  yourself  some  scene  or  incident  men- 
tioned in  the  poem  and  describe  it  fully,  putting  in 
enough  detail  to  gii'C  a  clear  idea  of  it. 

IV. 

What  is  the  purpose  of  "  The  Revenge"?  How 
has  the  author  shown  liis  purpose?  JJliat  impress- 
es you  most  in  reading  the  poem?  What  do  you  like 
about  the  poem? 

Outline  and  write  a  review  of  "  The  Revenge?' 
See  that  each  paragraph  of  your  reviezv  deals  with 
but  one  topic  and  that  the  paragraphs  are  related. 


The  Index 


The  references  are  to  section  numbers 


A. 

Abridged    complex    sentence,    85. 

Abridged  compound  sentence,  56, 
60.  62. 

.\l)-olute  tense,  269;  classes  of,  271. 

.■\bstract  noun,  134. 

Active  voice,  283;  classes  of,  286. 

Adjective,  32,  192;  classes  of  on  ba- 
sis of  chief  purpose,  196. 

Adjective  clause,  71,  98,  99;  con- 
nectives of,  116;  punctuation  of, 
118,   relative  pronoun  in  the,   102. 

.\djective    modifiers,   classe-    of,   51. 

Adjectives,  not  compared,  227;  on 
basis  of  use.  193;  singular  and 
plural,    215. 

A.djective  phrase,-  41,  42. 

Adverbial  clause,  71,  119;  ideas. 
54;  modifier,  53;  objective  modi- 
fier defined,  49:   phrase,  41,  42. 

Adverb  defined,  :i2.  301. 

.-\(lvcrbs,  classe-  of  on  basis  of  kind 
of  idea  to  which  the  attribute 
expressed,  belongs,  302 ;  classes 
of  on   basis  of  use.  .305. 

.\dversative    conjunctions,    77. 

.Alternative    conjunctions,    79. 

AnaK'"=is  of  the  sentence,  model  for, 
16.' 


-Vnalysis  of  the  thought,  model  for, 

16. 
Antecedent,   190. 
-\ppositive    modifier,   45. 
-Arrangement   defined,  20;   kinds  of 

21  ;   natural   inverted,   21. 
Article,  210;  classes  'of,   211. 
Ascending    comparison,    224. 
-Attribute    defined,    28. 
Attribute    modifier    defined,    44. 
Attribute  words,  32;  classes  of,  238, 
-Attributive    clause,    70;    classes    of 

71. 
-Attributive  modifier  defined,  50;   oi 

infinitive,   313. 
-Attributive   phrase,    39,    40;    classes 

of,  41,  42. 
Attributive  uses  of  the  infinitive.  310. 
.Attriliutive  verb,  32,  237;  classes  of, 

230. 
-Attributive  verb  phrase.  41,  42. 
Attributive    word,    defined,    30. 
Auxiliary  verb,  246.  253. 

C. 

Ca])itaIization,    22. 
Cardinal    .'idjcclive.   207. 
Case.  1C)0.  161;  classes  of.  162;  how 
denoted.    166. 


(382) 


The  Index 


383 


ausal  conjunction,  81. 
ausative  verb,  246,  252. 
hanges   in   form  to   denote   person 
and  number,  291. 
las.'^  noun=,  129. 

lasses  of  adjective  modifiers,  51. 
lause.  The,  66:  classified  on  basis 
of  the   relation  of   one  clause  to 
the  other  clauses  in  the  sentence, 
67;  classified  on  basis  of  use,  68; 
defined.  25. 
Dgnate  verb,  246.  248. 
ollective  noun.   130. 
ommon  gender.   141. 
3mmon  noun,  127;  classes  of,  128. 
omparison.   216,    217;    degrees    of, 
218;    kinds   of.   223;   methods  of, 
226. 

omparative  degree.  220.  222 
3mplex  sentence.  84;  abridged,  85; 
classes  of.  85;  defined,  24;  regu- 
lar, 85 ;  words  used  in.  86. 
omposition.  22,  28,  59,  63,  81,  82. 
83,  118.  120,  122,  123,  134.  159, 
168.  183,  189.  191.  213.  227.  253, 
265.  278.  279.  288,  300,  307,  314. 
321.  329. 

ompound.  compound  -  complex 

sentence,   60,  63. 

ompound  conjunctive  adverb.  120. 
ompound  pergonal  pronouns,  180; 
how  formed.  181;  how  used,  182; 
peculiarity  of.  183. 
ompound  predicates.  57. 
ompound  relative  pronoun.  103, 
109;  how  formed.  110;  list  of 
111. 


Compound  sentence,  56;  abridged, 
60;  classes  of.  60;  defined,  24; 
groups  of  words  used  in  forming 
the.  65 ;  members  of.  72 ;  punctua- 
tion of,  83;  regular,  60;  relation 
between  thoughts  expressed  by 
members  of,  12>\  uses  of  words  in 
the,  82;  words  used  in  forming 
the.   64. 

Compound    subject,    56. 

Concrete   noun,    132,   133. 

Conjugation,  295;  defined,  Z2>. 

Conjunction,   defined,  326. 

Co-ordinate  clause,  67. 

Co-ordinate   conjunction,   327. 

Copula  defined.  15 ;  the  principal 
part   of.   55. 

Copulative   conjunction.    75. 

Correlative  conjunction,  328. 


D. 


Declarative    sentence    defined,    18. 

Declension,   168. 

Defective  verb,  246,  250. 

Definite   article,    212. 

Definition,   marks  of.  2. 

Dcmonsti'ative    adjective,    202. 

Descending  comparison,  225. 

Descriptive   adjective.    197. 

Descriptive  adjective  clause.  98,  100. 

Descriptive  adjective  modifier  de- 
fined, 51. 

Devices  for  fixing  use  of  principal 
l)arts   of    irregular   verbs.   245. 

Direct  objccti\e  modifier  defined, 
47. 


384 


The  Index 


Direct  quotation,  91,  94;  punctua- 
tion, 93 ;  uses  of  in  the  complex 
sentence,  92. 

Distinguishing  mark  of  grammar,  4. 

E. 

Elements  of  the  thought   11,   12. 
l-'xclamator}-    sentence    defined,    18. 
Expletive  defined,  34. 


Factitive   verb,   246,   252. 
I'eminine    gender,    140. 
l-'irst  person,   148,   174. 
I-"orms  not  passive,  288. 
Forms   of  verbs,  299. 
I'orm  words,  34. 
I^iture    perfect    tense,    278. 
I'uturc  tense,  274. 


Gender,    136,    137;    classes    of,    138; 

irregularities  in,   144;   methods  of 

denoting,    143. 
Grammar  defined,  5. 
Grammar,    distinguishing    mark    of, 

4;  place  in  the  language  group,  3. 

I 

Ideas   defined,  9,  28. 
Idea   of    relation   defined,   28. 
Imperative  mode,  257,  260;   sugges- 
tion on,  255. 
Imperative  sentence  defined,    18. 
Impersonal  verb,  246,  247. 
Indefinite   article,  213. 
Independent  clause,  69. 
Indicative  mode,  257,  258. 


Indicative   mode,  uses  of,  262. 

Indirect  objective  modifier  detinec 
48. 

Indirect  quotation,  95,  97;  uses  o 
%. 

Individual  clause,  67. 

Infinitive,  308;  attributive  modifie 
of,  313 ;  attributive  uses  of,  310 
defined,' 35;  substantive  modifie 
of,  312;  substantive  uses  of,  309 
forms  of,  314;  relational  uses  o 
311. 

Infinitive  phrase,  il ,  38. 

Inflection,    173. 

Interjection,  34. 

Interrogative  adjective,  203;  ac 
verb,  307;  pronoun,  170,  184,  185 
distinction  in,  187 ;  forms  o 
186;   uses  in,  188. 

Interrogative    sentence    defined,    1< 

Intransitive  verb,  240. 

Inverted   arrangement,  21. 

Irregular  verb,  243;  difficult,  244. 

K 

Kinds   of   arrangements,   21. 


Language    studies,      classes    of,      6 

definition  of,  6;   outline  of,  6. 
Limiting     adjective     defined,      198 

classes  of,  199. 
Limiting    adjective    clause,   98,    101 

199. 
Limiting  adjective  modifier  definec 

52. 
Literal    meaning    of    words,    1. 


The  Index 


385 


M 

Marks  of  a  good   definition,  2. 

Masculine   gender,    139. 

Modal  adverb,  304. 

Mode,  255,  256. 

Model  for  the  analysi.^  of  the  sen- 
tence, 16;  for  analysis  of  the 
thought,    16. 

Modifier,  defined,  43;  kind  of.  44. 

Modifying  adjective.   195. 

Multiplicative  adjective,  209. 

N 

Natural   arrangement,   21. 
Neuter    gender,    142. 
Nominative   case,   163. 
Noun,  124;  classes  of,  125;  defined, 

31 ;    plural    in    form    but    singular 

in   meaning,    159;    properties     of. 

135. 
Number,   151,  152,  289,  290;  classes 

of,  153. 
Numeral    adjective,   205;    classe    of, 

206. 


Objective  case,  165. 

Object   of   thought   defined,   28. 

Ordinal  objective.  208. 

P 

Parsing,  191,  228. 

Participle,  315;   attributive   uses   of, 

317;   attributive   modifier  of,  320; 

defined,  35 ;  forms  of,  321  ;  phrase, 

yi ,    38;    relational    uses   of,    318; 

substantive  modifiers  of,  319;  sub- 

stative  use-  of  316. 


Parts  of  speech,  123. 

Parts  of  the  sentence,  14;  defined, 
15. 

Passive  voice,  284;  classes  of,  287; 
hov.-   formed,   285. 

I'ast  indicative,  233. 

I^ist  participle,  234. 

Past  perfect  tense,  277. 

Past  tense.  273. 

Personal  pronoun,  170;  classes  of, 
171;   peculiarities   of,   178. 

Person,  145,  146,  289,  290;  classes 
of,  147. 

Phrase,  36;  classes  of,  })1  \  on  basis 
of  characteristic  word,  38;  on  ba- 
sis of  their  use  in  sentence,  39. 

Phrasal  conjunctions,  329. 

Place  of  grammar  in  the  language 
group,  3. 

Plural   adjectives,   215. 

Plurals    foreign,    158. 

Plural  number,  155;  rules  for  for- 
mation of,  156;  with  different 
meanings,   157. 

Positive  degree,  219,  222. 

Possessive  case.  164;  forms,  167, 
177. 

Possessive  modifier  defined,  46. 

Potential   mode,  261. 

Predicate  adjective,   194. 

Predicate  defined,   15. 

Predicate,  the  principal  part  of,  55. 

Prepositional  phrase,  Zl ,  38. 

Preposition,  322 ;  defined,  2>2> ;  modi- 
fiers of,  324;  object  of,  325;  uses 
of,  323. 

Present  indicative,  232. 


386 


The  Index 


Present  perfect  tense,  276. 

Present  tense,  272. 

Principal  parts,   names  of,  231. 

Principal  parts  of  irregular  verb, 
244. 

Pronominal  adjectives,  200;  called 
pronouns,   214;   classes   of,   201. 

Pronoun,  169;  defined,  31;  classes 
of,   170;  or  adjectives,   179. 

Proper   noun,   126. 

Properties  of  noun,   135. 

Punctuat'ion,  rules  of,  123;  and  cap- 
italization, 22. 

Pure  adverb,  306. 

Pure  subordinate  conjunction,  121, 
122. 

Pure  verb,  16,  236;  defined,  33. 


Quantitative   adjective.   204. 

R 

Redundant    verb,   246,   249. 

Reflexive  verb,  246,  251. 

Regular,  adverb,  303;  arrangement, 
21 ;  complex  sentence,  85 ;  com- 
pound sentence,  60,  61 ;  verb,  242. 

Relational  pbrase.  39,  40,  uses  of 
the  infinitive,  311;  words,  33; 
word  defined,  30. 

Relation  of  addition,  74;  of  agree- 
ment, 12;  of  alternation,  78;  of 
conclusion.  80;  of  disagreement, 
12;  of  opposition,  76. 

Relative  pronoun,  104,  108,170,189; 
classes  of,  105 ;  distinctions  in  use. 


189;  forms  of,  189;  in  the  adjec- 
tive clause,  102;  kinds  of  objects 
expressed  by,  108;  omitted,  189; 
possessive  form  of,  189;  proper- 
ties of,  189. 

Relative  tense,  270;  classes  of,  275. 

Review,  16,  22,  28,  59,  63,  82, 
83,  102,  118,  120,  122,  123,  134, 
159,  168',  183,  190,  191,  215,  228, 
253,  265,  278.  288,  300,  307,  314. 
321,  329. 


Scheme  for  study  of  a  selection,  59. 

Second  person,  149,  175. 

Sentence,  classes  of,  17,  23 ;  classi- 
fied on  basis  of  their  meaning,  17 ; 
defined,  7 ;  on  basis  of  number  and 
relation  of  thoughts  expressed, 
22) ;  the  arrangement  of,  19 ;  the 
organic  parts  of,  55 ;  why  it  must 
have  three  parts,   16. 

Shall  and  Will,  uses  of,  254. 

Simple  conjunctive  adverb,  114. 
115;  list  of,  117. 

Simple  personal  pronoun,  172. 

Simple  relative  pronoun,  103.  106; 
list  of.  107. 

Simple  sentence,  uses  of  words  in. 
58 ;  defined,  24 ;  model  of  analy- 
sis. 59;  to  find  kinds  of  words  in. 
59. 

Singular  adjective,  215. 

Singular  number,    154. 

Strong  verbs,  293. 

Subject  defined,  15;  principal  part 
of  55,  agreement  with  verb.  292. 


The  Index 


387 


Subordinate  clause,  69;  classes  of, 
70. 

Subordinate  conjunction,  ZTi . 

Substance  noun,  131. 

Substantive  clauses,  70;  usual  form. 
87,  90;  punctuation  of,  89;  the 
uses  of  in  the  complex  sentence, 
88. 

Substantive  moditier  defined,  45 ;  of 
the  infinitive,  312. 

Substantive  phrase,  39,   40. 

Substantive  uses  of  the  inlinitive, 
309. 

Substantive  words.  31  ;   defined.  30. 

Subjunctive  mode,  257,  259;  re- 
mains of,  263 ;  uses  of.  264. 

Superlative  degree,  221,  222. 

Synopsis,  298. 


Tense,  266,  267;  classes  of,  268;  uses 

of  forms,  279. 
Third  person,  150,  176. 
Thought  analyzed,  13. 
Thought  and  the  subject.  8. 
TlK>ught     and     sentence    compared. 

10;    defined,  9;    elements  of,    11: 


material   or   ideas,   26;    predicate, 
12;  relation,  12;  subject,  12. 
Transitive  verb.  239. 


\'orb.^9;  au.xiliary,  236,  246.  252, 
IIZ;  agreement  with  subject  292; 
be,  conjugation  of,  295;  causa- 
tive, 246;  classes  of,  235;  classes 
of  on  basis  of  how  the  past 
indicative  and  perfect  participle 
;:re  formed,  241 ;  classes  of  on  basis 
of  peculiarities,  246;  cognate,  246. 
248;  defective.  246,  250;  factitive. 
246,  252;  impersonal.  246,  247; 
phrase.  300;  principal  parts  of. 
230;  pure,  16,  236;  redundant. 
246,  249;  reflexive.  246,  251;  reg- 
ular, 242;  icU,  conjugation  of, 
297.   he,  conjugation   of,  296. 

Voice,  280,  281  ;  classes  of.  282. 

W 

Weak  verb.  294. 

W'liat.    the    word.    112. 

W'lioever.    proper    use    of    form    of. 

113. 
Words,  classes  of.  30;   defined.  29; 

literal  meaning  of.  1  ;  use  of,  27. 


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